Sigmund Freud’s Ideas On Sexuality

Roberto Assagioli gives a short overview of some of Sigmund Freud’s central ideas on sexuality

By Roberto Assagioli, 1931, Translated and edited with notes by Jan Kuniholm.  Original title: Le Idee di Sigmund Freud sulla Sessualià. From the Assagioli Archive in Florence, Document #23472-23475. [1]

See also Assagioli’s notes on psychoanalysis versus psychosynthesis, and psychoanalysis as a method, and a compilation of quotes.

The name of Sigmund Freud, known a short time ago only to a small circle of specialists, has quickly become famous. His original and ingenious methods of exploring the unconscious and studying sexual life, his unusual and daring theories, and the psychotherapeutic successes of which he boasted, have aroused great curiosity and lively discussion among psychiatrists and psychologists.

On the one hand, an ever-growing group of disciples, willing and enthusiastic if not clear and balanced, confirm and overstate the master’s ideas; on the other hand, many among the high echelons of official psychiatry harshly criticize this daring innovator and, taking advantage of the obvious extremism of some of his views, seek to discredit the whole scientific movement he created.

This state of affairs certainly does not facilitate a clear understanding and objective assessment of that movement. Such a task is difficult enough in itself, given the great complexity of the issues raised by Freud, and given the disordered mixture of established facts, theoretical assertions and brilliant metaphors which make many of his writings lively and pleasant to read, but also intricate and “puzzling.”

Such a study should be made with all the greater seriousness and caution, for Freud’s research has extraordinary practical importance. For according to the manner in which it is done, the application of his methods and precepts may either serve the prevention and relief of many nervous disorders, or do serious harm to patients, and spread inaccurate and dangerous conceptions.

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To properly understand Freud’s original ideas about sexual life, one must know, at least briefly, the general conceptions on which they are based. Freud was a neuropathologist who, like others, first turned his attention primarily to the symptoms of organic diseases of the nervous system. Gradually he was drawn to give more and more importance to conscious and unconscious psychic activity, which, if it did not always reveal to him the intimate causes of the morbid processes, in many cases explained well the mechanism by which the various symptoms arise, become entrenched, and can eventually be removed. He gradually worked out what is known as psychoanalysis, which is a very ingenious method of exploring the unconscious and removing the abnormal conditions that prevent the harmonious functioning of the psyche in many patients.

By means of psychoanalysis, about which I cannot give more details on this occasion, Freud tried to show that hysterical symptoms and some neurasthenic symptoms originate in a conflict between the consciousness and the instinctive tendencies of the patient; or with complexes of ideas and memories endowed with a strong affective tone.

The result of such a conflict would be the expulsion (Verdrängung)[2] from consciousness of those complexes that are irreconcilable with it; then the emotional charge, which had been compressed but not destroyed, would open up an abnormal outlet, converting itself into hysterical symptoms. There are various modes of this mechanism, called conversion, which has been studied in detail by Freud and which forms the foundation of many of his ideas. But we must now confine ourselves to examining its relations to sexual life, both normal and pathological.

As Freud continued his research, he became more and more convinced of the close connection between sexuality and psychoneurosis, so that he came to assert that the latter depends on abnormalities of the former in every case. Of course, such a strange and rash assertion has aroused and continues to arouse strong opposition and reservations. Freud actually approaches the concept of sexuality in a much broader sense than is ordinary, and includes many tendencies and many psychic facts that are usually considered distinct from it; we shall see that this is one of the weaknesses of his theories.

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Our author brought together and coordinated his conceptions concerning sexual life in three monographs, published under the title: Drei Abhandlungen zur Neurosenlehre.[3]

The first of these monographs deals with sexual abnormalities, which Freud divides first of all into two major classes: those concerning the sexual object (i.e., the person who inspires sexual attraction) and those concerning the sexual aim (i.e., the action toward which the instinct drives). Deviations concerning the sexual object consist essentially of inversion (homosexuality). Freud examines the very different forms it can take, criticizes the various theories that have been proposed to explain it, especially the degenerative one. Without claiming to clarify everything, he accepts and develops a theory of the original bisexuality of every individual, which is confirmed by various anatomical and embryological facts. Normal development would then consist in the transition from bisexuality to the dominance of the heterosexual instinct, while reversals would consist in irregularities in this development.

The second class of abnormalities, those consisting in deviations from sexual aim (generally known under the name of perversions), is in turn divided into several groups. There are first of all the so-called anatomical deviations, which result either from exaggerated attachment to all physical and psychic qualities of the beloved person or from a desire for variety, and consist in the use for sexual purposes of parts of the body not naturally intended for them. The extreme exaggeration of these perversions occurs in sexual fetishism for inanimate objects. The second group consists of the fixation on preliminary sexual aims, that is, the use of actions that normally constitute only a preparation and initiation for sexual satisfaction, for ultimate sexual purposes. Finally, there is the pleasure of inflicting or suffering pain and mistreatment during the sexual act, perversions that are known as sadism and masochism, respectively; and that can, at least in part, be interpreted as an exaggeration of the atavistic aggressive component of the sexual instinct.

All these perversions, however, cannot occur unless they have first overcome the natural barriers that oppose them; namely, for the first two groups, modesty, disgust and revulsion; for sadism, compassion; and for masochism, pain (and, one might add, a sense of personal dignity).

But these conflicts between instincts and inhibitions can also have outcomes other than the decisive victory of one or the other. Sometimes the victory of inhibition is followed by a true sublimation of the sexual instinct, which is transformed into higher emotional and spiritual energies. We shall speak again later of this very important process, which is one of the best means of solving the difficult problems of sexual life. In other cases, however, the conflict between inhibitions and an intense and abnormal libido (a term by which Freud designates the sexual instinct in a very broad sense) — occurring in people whose nervous system is particularly predisposed — gives rise to a forced, abnormal and imperfect repression of the libido, which results in various morbid states. This occurs by means of the already mentioned mechanism of the conversion of such tendencies that are irreconcilable with the rest of the personality into organic symptoms. According to Freud, this phenomenon especially occurs — as we have seen — in hysteria. Hysterical symptoms would thus consist of sexual tendencies (generally of a perverse nature) that are inhibited and repressed; which is summarized by Freud in the formula: hysteria is the reverse, the negative side of perversions.

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The psychoanalysis of patients with nervous diseases then led Freud to another very important achievement, namely, the discovery of infantile sexuality. This is the subject of Freud’s second monograph. He first explains the strange fact that infantile sexuality has remained generally unknown, by postulating the existence of a peculiar amnesia or forgetfulness of much of infant’s life up to the sixth and even the eighth year. This amnesia, which would be a general and entirely normal phenomenon, would be produced by the onset of inhibition of infantile instincts and would be analogous to what accompanies the forced repression of irreconcilable affective complexes in neurotics. This is not the time to present the demonstration Freud attempts to give of infant sexuality by analyzing the transformation of sucking, which was first intended for the infant’s nourishment, which becomes (according to Freud) an end in itself as a source of sensual pleasure. Other sources of such pleasure for the infant would be the touching and rubbing of various erogenous zones and certain rhythmic movements. To connect all this with sexuality appears at first sight to be an unwarranted generalization; but the series of facts adopted by Freud in support of these ideas gives much food for thought; and would really lead us to admit the existence of an infantile sensuality that has definite connections with sexuality, although to a lesser extent than Freud claims.

The characteristics he finds in infantile sexuality are autoeroticism, that is, the attainment of pleasure obtained without the participation of another being; and polymorphism, that is, the variety of ways in which such pleasure can be attained. In normal children such eroticism is naturally very weak and is easily inhibited by the rise of modesty, distaste[4] and moral feelings, coming largely, but not exclusively, from upbringing. With this begins, according to Freud, a more or less complete period of latency of the sexual instinct, which lasts until puberty. In some children, on the other hand, these sexual tendencies are abnormally intense and precocious, so that the inhibition of them is more difficult and fails to stop the remaining impulses, which may produce, as the case may be, the most varied disorders and abnormalities, such as masturbation, nocturnal ejaculation,[5] bladder disorders, and, later on, the various forms of perversions or nervous symptoms. The occurrence of the latter two sets of facts is often increased and complicated by seductions and sexual traumas which are inflicted by other people, traumas to which these abnormal children are more susceptible than others.

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Freud’s third monograph deals with the transformations of puberty. The major one of these consists in the development of the genital area, which assumes primacy over all other erogenous zones. The others, however, do not lose all activity, but assume the function of aiding the genital function by means of so-called preparatory pleasure. These changes are accompanied by the discovery of the sexual object.

It must be stated that even during the infantile period autoeroticism is not absolute. Indeed, given the intimate relationship between the emotional and physical sides of love, the affection of and for parents exerts a profound influence on the child, which will have a decisive bearing on the child’s future sexuality. Thus, at the time of puberty, the new form of love would tend to turn toward the parent of the opposite sex, if it were not prevented by ethical inhibitions on the one hand, and the progressive estrangement from the parents, often accompanied by conflict on the other hand. This conflict occurs because of the adolescent’s growing assertion of personality and the need for intellectual and moral independence. Freud finds a proof of this in the fact that as children neurotics often had an exaggerated, insatiable need for caresses and other demonstrations of affection from their parents, and then did not free themselves from their influence at the time of puberty, but generally remained in a state of affective dependence of an infantile character toward their parents.

In the conclusion that follows the three monographs, Freud discusses the nature and importance of the original sexual makeup of various persons, and again speaks in more detail about the different outcomes that the development of sexual life can have. Concerning two of these outcomes, namely, perversions and the onset of nervous disorders (as a result of abnormal repression of sexual tendencies) he adds, among other things, that in both cases one can observe an exaggerated influence and fixation of infantile sexual life , owing to the predominance that memories of the past would have in psychic activity in comparison with recent impressions.

A third very important transformation of sexual tendencies is what Freud called sublimation, by which those energies are discharged into other fields, so that a considerable increase in psychic productivity results. This appears clear, according to Freud, especially for artistic creation. One variety of sublimation is, according to him, the so-called reaction formation, which would transform harmful impulses into the opposite moral tendencies.

After the publication of the Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexual-Theorie,[6] Freud wrote numerous articles in which he took up and developed various points of his conceptions of sexuality. Among other things, he insisted particularly on the importance of the child’s attachment to the parent of the opposite sex, a fact which he usually designated by the name of the Oedipus complex.

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I would like to point out that this sketchy and incomplete summary can serve only for a first orientation toward Freud’s complex theories, and that it is not sufficient to make them well understood; much less therefore does it allow one to judge them. Not even after a long study of the works of Freud and his disciples is it easy to make confident judgments about all the findings, statements, interpretations and hypotheses contained in them. On the other hand, I believe it necessary — because of the importance of the issues raised and the dangerous consequences that can be drawn from Freudian conceptions — to follow up their exposition with some critical notes, insisting on their character as observations and not as definitive judgments.

The first consideration of a general nature that can be made about the set of doctrines we have examined is that Freud, because of his profession as a neuropathologist, was naturally drawn to attach extraordinary importance to the lower and instinctive side of sexuality and especially to its aberrations, while placing too little emphasis on the higher manifestations of love, which also have so much efficacy in the lives of men.

Moreover, Freud has a tendency — psychologically well understandable and excusable because it is common to almost all scientists — to give too much value and too general a scope to the facts and laws he himself discovered, in comparison with those already known before. This seems to me to have happened, for example, with regard to infantile sexuality, in the study of which Freud did not take sufficient account of the great differences existing between normal children and those predisposed to neuroses.

Freud’s other clearly exaggerated claim, that all psychoneurosis originates from disorders of sexual life, can be approached in the same way. He is certainly right when he opposes the undue importance which is usually given to intellectual overwork as the cause of nervous disorders.[7] But on the other hand he unduly overlooks the psychopathogenic action of many other instincts, emotions and passions, other than the libido — which are also capable of producing serious nervous and mental disorders by means of psychic traumas, whether violent or chronically repeated.

Turning to more particular criticisms, I will say that part of the undue generalizations attributable to Freud depend on the unfortunate concept of libido, which because of its elasticity and ambiguity is apt to create confusion and error. For with this concept Freud and his followers subsume into the sexual instinct tendencies which, while they have some connection with it, are clearly distinguished from it by essential differences. Thus, although the sexual interpretation of many fearful and anxious states found in neurasthenia is sound and has had many confirmations, the claim to extend the sexual interpretation to so many other forms of fear that are directly connected with the instinct of self-preservation does not seem to be as well founded. That instinct has great importance in psychopathology, and does not seem to me to have yet been sufficiently emphasized either by Freud or by others. [See Appendix to this article for a footnote inserted at this point by Assagioli’s editor in the 1931 published version of this article.]

Another distinction of great practical value seems to me to be too much neglected by the Freudian school: that between conscious and harmonious mastery of the sexual instinct, and what Freud calls Verdrängung;[8] that is, the imperfect and irregular repression of overbearing tendencies. When these are driven out of ordinary consciousness, but are neither destroyed nor tamed, they take refuge in the unconscious and from there are transformed into the most varied nervous symptoms.

The neglect of this distinction led Freud to several exaggerations, especially the very serious one of attributing undue importance to the lack of physical satisfaction of the sexual instinct as a cause of psychoneurosis. It is unnecessary to show how dangerous this belief is, and to what abuses it would lend itself. This serious defect in Freudian doctrines can easily be corrected, however, if we keep in mind the distinction between “repression” and the conscious control of instincts, and if we develop and apply the fruitful process of sublimation, to which Freud did not give the importance it deserves. This valuable faculty of the psyche has its own nature and laws. If we study this faculty, which transforms blind instinctive forces into elevated emotional and spiritual energies, we will be able to develop psychological educational methods suitable for developing it in all those in whom it is latent and ignored, and for intensifying it in those in whom it is insufficient. Then we shall have found a truly practical and fruitful way of combating the grave damage caused to the individual and society by the present state of the sexual question.

I cannot now dwell on this subject, which I have already dealt with on another occasion.[9] I will only mention that other scholars arrived — independently of Freud — at the discovery of sublimation. For example, E. Carpenter[10] has written beautiful pages on this subject, from which I will quote the following excerpt:

May we not say that there is probably some sort of Transmutation of essences continually effected and effectible in the human frame? Lust and Love — the Aphrodite Pandemos and the Aphrodite Ouranios — are subtly interchange-able. . . . It is a matter of common experience that the unrestrained outlet of merely physical desire leaves the nature drained of its higher love-forces; while on the other hand, if the physical satisfaction be denied, the body becomes surcharged with waves of emotion — sometimes to an unhealthy and dangerous degree. Yet at times this emotional love may, by reason of its expression being checked or restricted, transform itself into the all-penetrating subtle influence of spiritual love.[11]

Other important practical lessons can also be drawn from Freudian research as a whole, independently of any judgment on this or that particular theory. First of all, the studies on infantile sexuality bring valuable support to those (and there are now a great many of them) who advocate for an early revelation [to children] of the facts and laws concerning sexuality. Indeed, it seems clear from those researches that such an Aufklärung[12]must be made even before puberty, so that puberty proceeds from the very beginning in a normal way, making impossible those erotic fantasies which are produced by poorly or badly-satisfied curiosity, that according to Freud have so much importance in the production of psychoneurosis. Another of these teachings is the duty, as Freud says, to “overcome that mixture of lustfulness and prudery with which unfortunately many people approach sexual problems.” The value of this new and freer attitude lies not only in preventing many nervous disorders, but also in enabling a deep and complete study — as far as possible — of all the elements of which complex human nature is composed. Only those who know and can face and tame the dark monsters that swarm in the lower regions of their being without fear or revulsion can explore the brighter peaks of their soul and study the highest mysteries of human life, while remaining safe from their pitfalls.

Thus the newest science comes to bring confirmations and contributions to the ancient wisdom, which regarded knowing oneself as the beginning and end of all human wisdom.

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Appendix

In the 1931 published version of this article, an editorial footnote was appended to the text as noted above, after the sentence “That instinct has great importance in psychopathology, and does not seem to me to have yet been sufficiently emphasized either by Freud or by others.” Even though this published note is by an editor and not by Assagioli himself, we include it here as indicative of the contentious context in which Assagioli’s essay appeared. It is apparent that the editor, E. Tinto, was a proponent of the Freudian approach, and could not resist the impulse to insert his opinions into Assagioli’s essay rather than reserve them for a separate essay of his own. What follows is the note as it was published. —Ed.

I think, however, that it is right to extend the sexual interpretation also to the forms of fear directly connected with the instinct of self-preservation, for while their origin is to be sought in that instinct, their manifestation, development and intensity depend primarily on and are regulated by the subject’s sexuality. The instinct of self-preservation, which is common to all, gives rise to fear. But while this finds a suitable field for its more or less exaggerated manifestation in hyposexual subjects, or at any rate in those of weakened sexuality (and consequently who are timid or fearful), it becomes scarcely perceptible — because it is immediately conquered and repressed — in sexually strong subjects, who draw a store of energy, confidence, boldness and courage from their sexual potency and from the virtue of their hormones so as to destroy, almost entirely, the fearful phenomenon.

I am convinced that the degree of sexuality of each individual constitutes the core of the whole physical, sentimental and intellectual life of the individual himself in its most varied manifestations, including those which, at first glance, seem entirely independent of it.

For this reason, I also do not associate myself with the other distinct remark of Dr. Assagioli, where he notes that Freud has attached undue importance to the physical and lower stratum of sexuality, and neglected the higher manifestations of love. Still, even if one were to distinguish a superior and an inferior side in love (according to ideas which, in my view, should be substantially abandoned) I believe that one should nevertheless keep well in mind that love, considered by us as pure and elevated, is — in essence — nothing but the consequence, indeed the effect, of sexual and inferior love. Precisely as light and heat, which radiate from a burning candle, are in essence nothing but the effect of burning wax. So that when we, rather than turning our study directly to the phenomenon of light and heat, or dwell on examining the constitution and nature of burning matter, we only direct, more appropriately, our researches to the origin and true nature of the phenomenon that interests us; a phenomenon which, in any case, we could not examine detached from its root, because, detached from its root, it would not exist.

Therefore, the importance Freud gives to the lower and instinctive side of sexuality, from which, as from a tree trunk, the fragrant and colorful flowers of love, which our sentimental habit makes us believe to be a product of a wholly spiritual and distinct nature, derive life and develop.

In truth, what we mean by spirit is nothing but the effect and elaboration of our wonderful and mysterious living organism. — E. Tinto

(Edoardo Tinto was an Italian author and the editor of the series of periodicals in which this essay appeared in 1931) This note, which is shown in the Archive copy of the 1931 version this essay, did not appear in earlier versions. —Ed.

Author’s Bibliographical Notes (1910 Version Only)

Almost all the writings of Freud and followers deal with sexuality. Since I cannot, for reasons of space, report here the entire extensive bibliography of the Freudian movement, I merely quote a few writings, chosen from the most important and the least technical; reminding the reader, however, that to comprehend and evaluate any of them well a serious psychological and psychopathological background is necessary. —Author’s Note.

1. Abraham (Karl). — Das Erleiden sexueller Traumen als Form infantiler Sexualbetätigung. Zentralblau für Nervenheilkunde und Psychiatrie, 1907, 2 Novemberheft.
2. — Die psychologischen Beziehungen zwischen Sexualität und Alkoholismus. Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft, 1908, n. 8.
3. — Die Stellung der Verwandtenehe in der Psychologie der Neurosen. Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopatologische Forschungen. I, 1909, S. 110.
4. Freud (Sigmund). — Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie. Leipzig und Wien, F. Deuticke. 1905.
5. — Meine Ansichten über die Rolle der Sexualität in der Atiologie der Neurosen. In Löwenfeld, Sexualleben und Nervenleiden, 4 Aufl. 1905.(Collected in Freud, Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, I, Leipzig und Wien, F. Deuticke. 1906).
6. — Die “kulturelle” Sexualmoral und die moderne Nervosität. Sexualprobleme, IV. 1908, H. 3. (Collected in Freud. Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre. II Folge, Leipzig und Wien, F. Deuticke, 1909).
   This paper contains very bold claims and has raised much noise. Against it the well-known pedagogue F. W. Förster published the essay Neurose und Sexualethik (in Hochland, Dec. 1, 1908), in which he addresses various well-founded criticisms of Freud’s exaggerations, but on the other hand shows that he has not grasped all the right and fruitful sides of his doctrines.
7. Jung (C. G.) — Über die Psychologie der Dementia praecox. Halle, C. Marhold, 1907. See especially the chapter: Der gefühlsbetonte Komplex und seine allgemeinen Wirkungen auf die Psyche.
8. — Bedeutung des Vaters für das Schicksal des Einzelnen. Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psycopathologische Forschungen. I. 1909. S. 155.
9. Rank (O.) .— Der Künstler, Ansätze zu einer Sexualpsychologie. Wien und Leipzig. H. Heller u. C., 1907. Curious and interesting writing, full of ideas, often rash but always suggestive, about the relationships between artistic creation, sexuality, subconscious conflicts, sublimation, etc. Those who wish to study Freudian movements in depth can find valuable guidance in the precise summaries of all the writings of Freud and his Austrian and German disciples, published by K. Abraham at the end of the first volume of the Jahrbuch fur psycho-analytische und psychopathologische Forschangen. Leipzig und Wien, F. Deuticke, 1909.

[1] This article was originally written in 1910 and published in the February 10 issue of the magazine Voce, which is Doc. #23472 in the Archives. In 1921 it was re-typed and published in Rassegna di Studi Sessuali of that date (Doc. #23473 and #23475 in the Archives); finally it was re-published in 1931 in Issue No.58 of the Bibioteca dei Curiosi which was devoted to “Tre Lezioni di Sessuologia” [“Three Lessons in Sexology”] (Archive Doc. # 23474)The text of all these versions is substantially the same, with some minor additions and omissions; but in cases of discrepancy we follow text of the the 1931 version, however adding notes from the previous version that had been omitted in the later one. —Ed.

[2] Which may also be translated as “displacement.” —Tr.

[3] Freud, Sigmund, Three Treatises on Neurosis. (Leipzig and Vienna, F. Deuticke, 1905)

[4] The Italian words used here are pudore and disgusto, which may also be translated as “shame” and “disgust.” —Tr.

[5] In Italian this reads le polluzioni or literally “pollutions.” —Tr.

[6] Three Treatises on Sexual Theory (1905) —Ed.

[7] Against such exaggeration Prof. Tanzi recently brought a large copy of statistical, anatomical, physiological and psychological arguments. (The Ramazzini, Italian journal of social medicine III, 1909, n.10-12) — Author’s Note in the 1910 and 1921 versions.

[8] Literally, “expulsion” or “displacement.” —Tr.

[9] In the essay “Transformation and Sublimation of Sexual Energies,” Journal of Applied Psychology, VII, 1911, No. 3. —Author’s Note. This essay was reproduced in later writings by Assagioli including Chapter VII of his book Psychosynthesis, originally published in 1965. —Ed.

[10] Edward Carpenter (1844-1929) was an English socialist, poet, philosopher, anthologist, author and social reformer.—Tr.

[11] From Love’s Coming of Age by Edward Carpenter, Stockham Publishing Co. Chicago, 1902. The selection is from the original English edition accessed online at https://www.gutenberg.org/files/63081/63081-h/63081-h.htm. —Tr.

[12] “Enlightenment” or “education” —Tr.