The article is a psychotherapeutic classic, describing the author’s research into the use of guided visualization. It contains many truly profound ideas that every psychosynthetic therapist should be familiar with.
By Robert Desoille, translation AnnaBritt Jakielski
First Lesson on Guided Visualization – January 11, 1965
Ladies and gentlemen:
You have expressed a desire to learn something about the guided visualization technique. It is an honor for me to fulfill this wish, and I do so with the greatest pleasure.
Let us first consider the experiment and the phenomena which can be observed. Later we will try to explain them and understand how they can be used in the cure of neuroses.
The basic procedure of this experiment is very simple: it consists of having the person enter a visualization while lying as comfortably as possible on a couch in a state of total body relaxation. It is not necessary that he be completely relaxed, but he should be shielded from noise and should lie in semi-darkness with his eyes closed. This helps the person to avoid disturbing interruptions while he contemplates his mental images.
While spontaneous daydreaming is generally compensatory in nature, this is not the case with guided visualization, as we guide it. This is done in the following way: We give the patient a starting image, for example a sword, or possibly a beach where the water is very deep. We ask him to describe this image in as much detail as possible and ask him questions to elicit details if necessary. If it is an object, for example a sword or a vase, we ask the patient to tell us where the object is and where he himself is. He will then describe a place he sees in his mind’s eye, and we ask him to walk around. During the first session, it may be necessary to remind the patient from time to time that anything is possible in a visualization.
Here we come to the special fact that is peculiar to guided visualization and that makes it effective. The patient’s visualized movements are guided by the psychologist. This movement takes place primarily in the vertical dimension, either in the form of an ascent or descent.
Through this exercise we discover a fundamental law related to the mind: Although ascent is often difficult at first, in subsequent sessions it brings with it images that are increasingly luminous and express a sense of calm, clarity and, last but not least, joy – i.e. open and generous emotions. On the other hand, visualizing a descent evokes increasingly gloomy images that can be unpleasant and often associated with suffering.
In both cases we are dealing with one of the fundamental laws of the mind: it is expressed every day when we speak of “bright ideas,” “warm feelings,” and “airy thoughts.” Conversely, we recognize “shady agreements,” “a cool reception,” and “low morale.” We will return to this law later to give a physiological version of it.
We now come to the problem of suggestion. We have already mentioned the “starting image” – for example, a sword – and we are now talking about suggesting ascent or descent. We will soon need other forms of suggestion as well. They must be chosen in such a way that the suggested actions are normal parts of the patient’s daily life (such as opening a door), or at least can be accepted by him without conflicting with his habitual attitudes.
By using these methods to guide the patient’s visualization, we are able to uncover the full spectrum of the patient’s habitual emotional responses. We also bring out other emotions that are rarely expressed but are nevertheless part of his repertoire.
We are now ready to discuss the basis for the choice of the starting picture on which the guided visualization is based. Let us first, however, consider some important aspects of human nature. It is obvious that man must first confront himself; and then come to terms with others. That is to say, in order to understand the patient it is necessary for us to question him about himself and to explore his attitudes towards both men and women. If we were to use conventional language in this questioning, it would tell us very little, if anything at all. It must therefore be done in symbolic language, the universal language of dreams. In most cases the patient will answer our questions with visual images, but occasionally a feeling of hearing as well as of touch will arise. In any case, they should all be treated as symbols. There is a colossal advantage in this symbolic language: it provides the patient with the greatest possible freedom of expression, because while he is describing the images (which is done in conventional language), he is not aware of their meaning. He therefore does not experience any need to control the emotional expressions that he experiences in the guided visualization.
To shorten the treatment I have made a study of the frequency with which the various images occur. This has led me to take a number of standard themes, designed in such a way that they place the patient in a series of symbolic situations which the patient must have experienced at least once in his life. In doing so I have been aware of the phenomenon of dramatization which Freud has shown to occur in dreams.
Here are the six themes I use as a starting point in the treatment sessions:
No. Purpose Theme in connection with guided visualization
1 To confront one’s obvious character traits:
For a man, a sword. For a woman, a container or vessel.
2 To confront the character traits that are normally suppressed:
For both sexes, a descent into the depths of the ocean.
3 To reconcile with the parent of the opposite sex:
For a man, the descent into a cave to find a witch or sorceress.
For a woman, the descent into a cave to find a wizard or magician.
4 To reconcile with the parent of the same sex as the patient:
For a man, the descent into a cave to find a wizard or magician.
For a woman, the descent into a cave to find a witch or sorceress.
5 Coming to terms with societally imposed limitations:
For both sexes, the descent into a cave to find the fabled dragon.
6 Coming to terms with the Oedipal situation
For both sexes, the Sleeping Beauty castle in the forest.
The stories that patients create in response to these suggestions vary greatly, but are always meaningful to some extent. The images that I suggest to my patients actually correspond to quite precise questions . They are expressed in what Politzer has called “the intimate language,” the universal dream symbol language. Although the patient “knows” this language and uses it in his response, albeit unconsciously, he is not aware of its semantic meaning, that is, the meaning of the questions and his answers to them. In order to understand the patient and to help him understand himself, the therapist and the patient must together translate the symbols of this secret language into everyday language. That is why I ask the patient to write a full account of each of his guided visualizations and to bring it to the next session so that together we can analyze the content as thoroughly as possible.
To put it more clearly, let us return to the theme of the sword. I suggest this image to a man and ask him to tell me what he sees. Symbolically, this is the equivalent of asking him: “What do you think of yourself as a man in the broadest sense of the word?”
One person will visualize a powerful weapon, another will see an ornate, ceremonial sword, and a third person might see the blade of the sword without the hilt. For example, another might see a long, thin blade with a hilt at both ends, making the sword useless as a weapon. As a final example, a patient might only be able to imagine a photo of a sword, which would be an extreme example in the spectrum of possible responses.
It requires both sensitivity and diplomacy to interpret these responses in a proper manner. This interpretation is only possible with the patient’s active cooperation and should be based on three factors: 1) A comprehensive anamnesis, i.e. clarification of the patient’s past history, 2) ideas that the patient spontaneously associates with the content of his guided visualization, and 3) any other ideas that may arise during the treatment. The translation can only be considered valid if the patient experiences it as correct and fully agrees with it. We will return later to the question of how to arrive at an interpretation.
Once this initial image has been established, we ask the patient to describe in detail his or her visualized experiences. We ask him or her to bring the sword (or vase) into the visualization, but not to give it (or that) attention until we ask him or her to do so. We then remind the patient that anything is possible in a visualization, and then ask him or her to visualize himself or herself standing at the foot of a mountain range, to describe the landscape, and then to begin to climb one of the mountains. Here the difficulties begin. While the idea of climbing is very easy for some patients, who eagerly embrace it, for others it will require considerable effort; perhaps the patient sees that the mountain path is blocked by insurmountable obstacles, such as overhanging rocks, which prevent any progress. In this latter case, the psychologist must constantly strive to stimulate the patient’s efforts and must not under any circumstances allow the patient to give up hope and thus experience defeat. Conversely, it would also be wrong to insist on too much effort. In this regard, we should not overestimate the patient’s endurance. For this reason, a guided visualization should not last longer than an hour and should in any case be brought to an end in an affirmative way. In this particular situation, we should therefore feel satisfied if we succeed in leading the patient to the top of the mountain, where we can suggest a rest, enjoying the view and the great satisfaction associated with what Pierre Janet has called a “successful expedition”.
When dealing with patients who are less inhibited, it will often be possible to extend this first experience a little. After reminding the patient again that anything is possible in a visualization, we ask him to imagine a passage of clouds reaching up into the sky from where he is on the top of the mountain. We then ask him to continue his ascent. At such moments it is important to keep in constant touch with the patient’s feelings and to reinforce his desire to climb. There are certain suggestions that we can use to help him. For example, we can say to the patient: “Imagine someone coming from above to give you a helping hand.” This suggestion may evoke the image of a loved one, or simply a helping hand, or an angel (even people who do not have a religion can sometimes imagine angels). We continue to stimulate the patient’s efforts until he experiences that he is coming to a place of rest. At that point, we ask him to take the sword (for women: the container) and examine it to see if its appearance has changed. When changes occur, they are usually for the better. When they do, they are always a harbinger of a favorable development in the patient. In some patients, we can even further extend this initial experience by asking him to imagine a ray of sunlight hitting the sword (or the container) and observe what happens. In the case of a container, the therapist can go a step further and suggest to the patient that she hold it up to the sky as an offering or observe what will fill it. All changes in the image are important. They indicate to us the ease with which a patient can adapt to the guided visualization technique, and they also allow us to assess what is usually called the patient’s capacity for “sublimation” (which is a rather flowery term; I myself prefer the term “socialization of the instincts”).
Guided visualization evokes intense emotions
One of the most important advantages of the guided visualization technique is that it very easily evokes intense emotional reactions. This is indispensable for the achievement of certain states of consciousness and is important in achieving healing. However, there are also dangerous aspects associated with this advantage. That is why, during the patient’s first guided visualization, I avoid anything that could arouse anxiety.
This is not the case, however, in the second guided visualization. Before we begin it, I am careful to warn the patient that I will ask him to imagine a descent, which may possibly stimulate the appearance of unpleasant and perhaps even terrible images. I ask him to face the situation bravely, because that is the only way to discover the cause of his fear and its nature. He will then be able to learn to conquer his fear and gradually let it go. Furthermore, I immediately assure him that this new guided visualization will end with a pleasant experience that will make him feel pleasantly at ease. After these introductory remarks, I ask the patient to imagine a beach, a rocky coast where the water is very deep. Once the patient has described this scene, I suggest that he imagine himself either putting on a diving suit or oxygen equipment. He then slides into the water, diving as deep as possible. When he does so, I encourage him to tell me in detail what he sees in his mind’s eye. Usually feelings of fear arise quickly, and if I suggest to the patient that something threatening is approaching, a monster will soon appear, usually in the form of an octopus. Under these circumstances, I encourage the patient to surrender to the beast or to tame it with the power of a magic wand (this suggestion is perfectly acceptable to most people). I then ask the patient to have the monster show him its place of residence, for example, visiting a cave. If he finds something special there, I ask him to take it with him. I then ask the patient to imagine that he is returning to the surface and taking the monster with him to the beach. At this point, I may ask the patient to touch the monster again with his magic wand. He is told that the purpose of this action is to create a transformation in the octopus in order to reveal its true identity. Transformations often occur, and the monster may be replaced by a human being who has played an important role in the patient’s emotional life. The visualization then enters the final phase with the person climbing a mountain, where he, together with the person the octopus has transformed into, has a view of the sea. This ascent may continue into the sky.
This second guided visualization is a rather random exploration of the patient’s unconscious. It answers the question: “What is going on in the depths of your personality; what painful feelings are troubling you?” In contrast, the visualizations that follow this one, which involve a search for a magician or witch in a cave, will take a more concrete direction based on the nature of the theme.
At this point I feel compelled to jump into the story a little to discuss a question that you are probably thinking about, namely, “How should these images be interpreted?” To answer this question we will make use of everything that Freud and his followers, Jung and Adler, have already taught us about how our emotions are expressed. I would also like to add some of my own impressions. As I have told you, at the beginning of every session I place the patient in a certain standard situation. First the patient meets himself, and then in the following sessions he has to come to terms with others; now a man, now a woman. What is actually happening? The human memory consists of a series of images that represent his reactions to interactions with other people. These images are associated with emotions ranging from the most unpleasant to situations that give infinite satisfaction, for example love.
For men, these images usually begin with what they fear most (e.g., a devil), then change to something less threatening (a magician), then continue to something more normal (an “average person”), then the images become increasingly pleasant as the patient is guided through experiences involving, for example, a hero, an angel, and finally God.
For women, the most unpleasant image is a female devil or a devilish witch. The therapist may soften this to a less threatening old heron and then to an average woman. As the treatment continues, these images, as with men, become more and more pleasant (fairies, for example) and may culminate in the image of the Virgin.
All of these images arise spontaneously in the guided visualization. Instead of waiting for them to arise, the therapist can evoke them and use them to guide the visualization to explore the patient’s habitual reactions to others. It is in this way that neurotic patterns and their causes are brought to light. Similarly, defective reactions can be changed, first in the visualization and then in reality. I have suggested that these two sets of images can be called “archetypal chains.” We will return to this question when we discuss the use of guided visualization and its interpretation.
The theme of the fifth visualization is the encounter with the dragon or the mythical beast, which we must seek out in the depths of the cave where it lives. This is another figure that arises spontaneously in the guided visualizations and which will have one of the following two meanings: it can be the dragon from the legend, or it can be a symbol of virility. In the former case, I guide the patient’s efforts in that direction by specifying the interpretation of the legend. For a long time I searched for the meaning of the dragon. Jung believed that it represented the mother who refused to give herself to her son, but I do not approve of this interpretation. In the fable, the dragon guards a treasure and holds a girl or a boy hostage, whom it eventually swallows, but whom the hero rescues. What does this legend mean in our Western context? (In the East, the interpretation would be different, because the dragon there means happiness). I would like to suggest the following interpretation: The dragon represents all the prohibitions that surround the patient in his cultural environment. First of all, there are all the prohibitions that the family sets up. Then there are the prohibitions that arise from the patient’s social class and from his work obligations. Finally, the nation also sets certain limitations for the individual. If a treasure appears in this guided visualization, it represents the various mental and spiritual potentials that the patient has been prevented from developing because of all these prohibitions. The dragon’s young prisoners are also symbolic: In a male patient, the image of a girl that he must save represents that part of his own sensitivity that allows him to bond with a woman and to live with her in harmony. If this ability is not developed, contact with the opposite sex can be strained.
Guided visualization evokes memories
We now turn to the story of Sleeping Beauty, which unfolds differently for men and women.
In a male patient, I ask him to recall an experience he actually had with his mother, whether it was good or unpleasant. I then have him ask his mother to take him into a forest where they will search for Sleeping Beauty. When they find her, they enter the castle, and the man leaves his mother in one of the first rooms. He then goes upstairs alone, finds Sleeping Beauty’s bedroom, and wakes her up. If all goes well, the patient will usually spontaneously feel that by imitating the prince from the fairy tale, he is achieving adult maturity. I then ask him to offer his sword to Sleeping Beauty as an expression of his esteem and to walk around the castle with her, and to make an ascent with her. Next, I have him imagine that he is returning to the castle with Sleeping Beauty and introducing her to his mother; after which Sleeping Beauty welcomes her future mother-in-law to her home and leads her to a side wing reserved especially for her. In this symbolic way, the mother allows her son to take a wife. Although it is entirely visual, this theme can give rise to dramatic scenes, even in men who have had many sexual affairs without being able to choose a wife.
In a female patient, the sleeping beauty represents her awakening to sexual maturity. Here I ask her to imagine that she herself is Sleeping Beauty, still lying in bed sleeping and about to wake up. As she listens, she hears someone approaching. I ask her to look for who is entering her bedroom and to tell me what is happening. The scenario continues with an ascension with the prince and ends with Sleeping Beauty introducing her suitor to her father, the king.
This latter theme is included to guide the patient’s efforts towards the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, i.e. Freud’s classic discovery that a person can be an adult but still be attached to the parent of the opposite sex.
These six guided visualizations may take more than six sessions because the patient is often unable to achieve the desired result on the first attempt. It may therefore be necessary to return to the same theme perhaps four or five times before the images that arouse anxiety are completely emptied of their painful emotional charge. When they have been overcome, we can consider the situation as thoroughly analyzed. At that point it is generally reasonable for us to assume that we have had the patient confront every possible life situation and that the exploration of his habitual reactions to these situations is complete.
This series of six guided visualizations could be considered the first phase of the treatment. The second phase consists of showing the patient new and undeveloped response possibilities. He must first be made aware of them, and then he must be helped to develop and transform them into new habits. These problems are also treated entirely through visualization.
The third phase of treatment involves training the patient to move from imagination to reality. We will discuss this more fully in a later lesson.
This is, in short, the technique of guided visualization. But to truly understand the value of this technique, we still need to understand the mechanism on which it is based and assess its advantages compared to other methods. Before we move on to these aspects, I would like to make some observations that are probably obvious after an acquaintance with the technique:
1. There is extreme variation in the detail and content of the responses evoked, but this richness of content is presented by the patient within the framework of his own relatively fixed personality pattern.
2. An extraordinary richness of imagery occurs in certain particularly talented patients.
3. There is an apparent shift in style with regard to the images, which gradually shift from the patient’s memories of reality and from the habitual images of nocturnal dreams.
We are therefore exploring a completely new world, unknown to both Freud and Adler. Only the visionary Jung managed to catch a glimpse of this world. He has described it in a rather loose way, making use of traditional legends. The area that guided visualization opens up to us can be subdivided according to the nature of the images described by the patient. We can imagine, for example, that dream images exist on different planes. I would like to suggest the following divisions:
1. Images of reality and images from nightly dreams.
2. Images from fables and myths. The most common images in guided visualizations involving a descent are witches, wizards, magicians, demons, dragons, etc. In guided visualizations involving an ascent, we often find wise men, fairies, angels and winged horses. Christ, the Virgin Mary and God the Father also appear in the dreams of people who live in an environment characterized by Christian pictorial symbolism.
3. Finally, there are the images which I call “mystical” because they do not represent familiar objects, but instead consist of more or less vibrating impressions of light, and sometimes even give the impression of being alive. They all lack an objective representational character and consist solely of light. They can only be understood within the framework of the feelings which the patient has while he “sees” them. These range from calmness and serenity to enthusiasm and a feeling of joy, or even adoration. The only comparable experiences are the visions and accompanying feelings which are described by mystics.
I would like to conclude this first lesson with an example of a guided visualization whose richness and style are very unusual. It comes from a 27-year-old man who had suffered from exceptionally severe traumas both in childhood and in his youth, and whose current life circumstances are difficult. His first guided visualizations were unusually rich in imagery and displayed an extraordinarily dramatic quality. They also revealed a considerable aggression, which he turned for the most part against himself, and which caused an intense blockage of action. However, it very quickly became apparent that this aggression was expressed in the treatment, with the result that the patient was shocked and frightened by the urge for revenge that he discovered in himself. He became obsessed with the fear of venting his anger on a woman who had abandoned him. This situation is expressed in the first part of the dream. After that catharsis, the dream develops into a paradisiacal vision of a happy couple. A Jungian would say that the patient has reconstructed an accurate image of the anima. The following is a reproduction of the dream as the patient recalled it.
Patient’s account of the dream induced by guided visualization
I find myself in a barren landscape. In front of me stands a tall granite pillar. I begin to climb the pillar using steps carved into the granite. Suddenly I turn into a vampire and fly to the top. The plateau on which I land is round. It is surrounded by a golden railing. In the middle of the pillar is a hole wide enough for a man to descend through. In front of me, with its back to the railing, a sphinx stares at me with its yellow eyes. Its face is of stern beauty; its hair is black. It is draped in a long black cloak. A dark cloud passes over us, and from it a yellow ray of light strikes the plateau on which I stand. I step into the light and meditate for a moment, after which I bathe in the multiplicity of impressions that the light sends down upon me. Slowly I rise in the stream of light. I lose sight of the top of the pillar. The Sphinx begins to follow me, but cannot ascend as quickly as I can. All around me is wild confusion; the world is shaking. In the midst of this chaos I see pieces of broken wings, I see eyes being smashed, mountains shaking, boulders falling. I turn and look down at the Sphinx. The magnetism of my gaze draws it up to me. Although it is now at my level, it shares neither my vision nor the intensity of my feelings in relation to what I see. We continue our ascent in the beam of light, which is now turning green. We now leave the beam of light to explore the dark night of the cosmos.
The Sphinx flaps its wings, and somehow this movement of its wings allows me to rise even higher with it. We soon arrive at a lunar landscape of gray rocks and hard sand. The dark night colors the sky. The scenery is illuminated by moons that are orange and pale violet. The Sphinx grows larger. It has returned to its own realm and now shines with a new beauty and sublimity. A diadem appears on its forehead. It is the queen of this land. I become a man again. A crystal ball is attached to the Sphinx’s right leg. I grab it, and the light radiating from it penetrates my blood. I begin to glow, and my body turns white. We walk towards a rocky ridge. After we reach the top, we take off and fly for a while over the realm. To our right below us, a black volcano emits smoke. A silvery lake lies stretched out before us, its rippled surface solidified. Below us I hear voices murmuring and calling. To our left a long concrete channel has been dug, with men’s arms sticking out. We are now back on the ground, standing in front of a high granite wall with a bronze door.
The Sphinx strikes a gong, the door opens, and we enter. The door closes of its own accord behind us. We are in a room whose walls are like nuggets of gold. Heavy red curtains hang stretched from the ceiling. The floor is mosaic. We walk through several interconnected rooms and come to a glass door. The Sphinx pushes it open and enters an empty hall, in the middle of which stands a coffin covered in a burial shroud. I also want to enter the hall, but the Sphinx says no. I insist so strongly that it lets me in. As I take the first step into the hall, an imperceptible change occurs in me. My face takes on the appearance of a vampire. This seems to happen because of the trust the Sphinx shows me. I am becoming one of its vassals. Now I approach the coffin and lift the black cloth that covers it. The Sphinx tells me that the coffin contains the secret of its royal power. Suddenly I want to neutralize the sphinx in order to free what is trapped in the coffin. I have barely formulated this wish before I find myself completely transformed into a vampire. Two sharp teeth grow above my lower lip. On my hands and feet are long claws. A layer of short golden-brown hair covers my body. A long tail grows out. The sphinx guessed my intentions and cast a curse on me. A violent spasm runs through me, and I fall to the ground, rolling around and screaming. While I scratch at the ground, the sphinx comes over and haughtily places its foot on my chest, condemning me to stand guard by the coffin indefinitely. A crack opens in the rock ceiling. The sphinx disappears through the crack and is taken up in a long beam of white light coming out of the dark night sky. I then open the coffin. There is a skeleton in it. I tip the coffin over and tip the skeleton onto the ground. The scattered bones gather themselves into a pile, which catches fire. After the fire burns out, I blow on the ashes, which scatter and reveal a precious, red jewel.
At this point, the voice of the sphinx echoes in the hall around me. It tells me that I will never be able to leave this cavernous hall, and that I will never be able to use the jewel. It then adds that it will be my destiny to take the skeleton’s place in the coffin, thus fueling its royal power. Immediately after that, a belt of iron bars appears along the walls of the cave. The walls begin to move; they begin to come closer to me. I rub the ruby vigorously, and it begins to glow. I blow my warm breath on it. A young woman’s face appears in the jewel, and then I see her body. She reaches out her arms towards me. I smash the stone, and in doing so, I free the woman from her spell. She becomes a spirit-like creature that floats in the air and wraps itself around my chest. Suddenly, she disappears, frightened by my monstrous physical appearance. Then she cuts a hole in the wall, which provides me with an escape route. Finally she disappears into thin air. As soon as I am outside, I find the coffin again, step into it, and close the lid. I hope in this way to attract the sphinx, because I want to find out where it would take me and in what way it hopes to destroy me. Soon the coffin begins to move. At the sphinx’s command, four vampires carry it across the sky with the violet moon. Then I realize that they plan to destroy me by exposing me to the moon’s rays. I then break open the lid, take the vampires and the sphinx by the collars, and hold them in the destructive rays. I hear their screams of pain. As they fall, they dissolve. Their bones disappear into the sand.
Then I go back to the terrain and the sun rises. I raise my head to the sky and call. A gigantic female dragon appears. In her belly she has the head of a brunette, whose eyes are jet black and whose skin is dull and lackluster. I caress her hair. Before I can possess her, she tells me that I must free her from the dragon. I am already wearing my armor, so I raise my sword and puncture the dragon’s belly. Now the dragon’s mouth releases the woman, who is dressed in a blue veil. In her hand she holds a golden grail, which she drops as we ascend into the sky. I feel incredibly happy.
We ascend higher. She has put her arms around my shoulders. She is very beautiful; her face is at once sensual and spiritual. For me, the most attractive thing about her is her facial expression. She belongs to me. We are both wearing tight-fitting clothes; hers is golden and mine is silver. We now turn onto a luminous path that leads to the right. We come to a tunnel that opens into a bronze door. Suddenly the door opens. A cannon comes rolling out on two rails and continues into the room. After it has disappeared, we enter the tunnel, which is immediately illuminated by the shine of all the precious stones in the wall. We embrace each other and allow ourselves to enjoy the total joy of the moment. The entrance to the tunnel has closed behind us. We lie down on some red cushions. There is nothing sentimental in this woman’s gaze; on the contrary, I see an inexhaustible energy that has to do with love. When I let go of her embrace, I have more self-confidence and feel stronger than before. I feel that I am not a prisoner of this love. When we leave this place, it will be in each other’s company.
Here ends the patient’s report.
As can be seen, the first part of this visualization is about the symbolic release from the patient’s deep conflict with women, whom he experienced as mysterious and destructive creatures like the sphinx. Then a dragon appears holding a woman hostage. In this case, the dragon is a symbolic representation of the sadistic aspect of the patient’s masculinity. It is his sadism that distorts a correct image of the female sex. By killing the dragon, he symbolically suppresses his own exaggerated sadistic tendencies. This action frees the patient to create an ideal image of the female sex in his imagination. In the last part of the dream, all sentimentality disappears and is replaced by respect and admiration. The stage is then set for a flowering of love and perfect union.
Second Lesson – January 18, 1965
Phenomena induced by guided visualization
Today I would like to discuss with you some of the theoretical questions that have been raised throughout the description of the guided visualization technique, and tell you about some of the phenomena that it gives rise to. I would also like to draw some parallels between it and other techniques that are also used.
It is very difficult to put forward a theory when I feel obliged to add something within a rather narrow framework that is inherently fluid and changing. Moreover, no matter how precise and perfect the theory may be, it can only be based on information that is currently known; and scientific knowledge is constantly growing by virtue of new facts that can be constantly reinterpreted.
Despite previous attempts, it was only after I had developed a reasonable knowledge of the work of IP Pavlov and his followers through recent translations that I found the explanation I had long sought for our discoveries regarding the laws of higher nervous activity propounded by the great Russian physiologist.
Guided visualization, a semi-hypnotic state that lies between the waking state and sleep, is essentially a tool that can tap the inexhaustible reservoir in which we accumulate fears, anxieties, desires, and hopes throughout our lives. These factors retain their decisive influence on our behavior when we deal with the external world.
In the following discussion we will have the opportunity to speak alternatively about the psychological and physiological aspects of our behavior. We want to make it clear that this duality is only heuristic; they are simply two aspects of the same being; man must be understood as a whole person and cannot be considered in isolation from his environment, either in terms of internal or external aspects.
I would like to say a little about “conditioned reflexes” and “dynamic stereotypes.” (The use of the word “conditioned” rather than the more usual “conditioned” is an attempt to return to Pavlov’s original expression, which was wrongly translated as a past participle rather than an adjective. Woodworth and Schlosberg (Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt 1954) point out that the adjective “conditioned” describes the situation more correctly than “conditioned,” which is a past participle. Sutherland argues that this mistaken translation has led to serious misunderstandings of Pavlov’s intention, which was to demonstrate the variability of the experimentally evoked response in relation to the conditions under which it was evoked (translator’s note)). I assume that you are familiar with these ideas. They are often used exclusively in the case of animals. I recall that these ideas have a much more general meaning when we consider their applicability to man. What distinguishes man from animals is that we have a language. To express it in Pavlov’s terminology, the sensory perception of both man and animals constitutes a “first signaling system”. In the case of man, a “second signaling system” has been added to this, consisting of words, whether spoken, heard or read. Ivan Smolenski carried out an experiment that seems to me decisive, to demonstrate that when a dynamic stereotype is created in man within one of the two signaling systems, a precise response can be obtained in the other signaling system without further prior conditioning. For example, if a finger flexion is induced by an electroshock and this is made dependent on the sound of a bell for 30 seconds, it happens that if the conditioning stimulus – the sound of the bell – is replaced by the word “bell”, the conditioned response will occur without any other prior preparation.
These experiments motivate what Pavlov wrote as far back as 1927: “In man the word is both qualitatively and quantitatively a conditioning stimulus, which is infinitely wider in its application than is the case in animals.” These studies further help us to understand how the processes of overall nervous activity are dependent on modification through an intervention that is entirely verbal. Finally, these studies offer us the key to a truly scientific psychotherapy.
This second signaling system is what “creates rich possibilities for shaping mental processes,” as AN Leontiev put it, and which makes psychotherapy possible; it justifies the use of psychotherapy as long as we do not have faster and more direct methods for adapting cortical activity.
An excellent example of the results we can expect in the future from the application of these principles is painless childbirth. This is being done routinely in Russia by processes that are entirely verbally based. The processes were refined by the Pavlovian school. Similar methods have also been taught by Crantly Dick Reed in England and more recently here in France by Lamaze and others, all with equal success.
There is one more point that we must make clear. Just as the words of our language, which constitute the second signaling system, can function as signals, so too can visual images or other suggested images. Experiments have conclusively demonstrated that when a person thinks a word, his verbal image is very often accompanied by other images. These other images are usually of a visual nature; at other times other visual impressions may be evoked, either having to do with touch, sound, or motor skills, and all these images are closely connected with the first signaling system. All the images that can be evoked by a word can also function, each in its own way, as signals, thus supplementing the second signaling system that is specifically related to the person. This fact is extremely important because it contains both the explanation of how psychotherapy works and the justification for its use.
At this point it is obviously necessary that we agree on the precise meaning which we shall attach to the term “psychotherapy.” It is the sum of all suitable means for curing a neurosis without the use of medicine in a physical context. This should not be understood in the sense that medicine is forbidden. On the contrary, I often find it desirable to attack the problem by both means at the same time. Here, however, we shall confine ourselves to a discussion of the psychological means. Our next step is to deal with the question of what a neurosis is.
From birth to adulthood, humans develop at three different levels. Although we distinguish between these three aspects of human development for linguistic and observational reasons, in reality there is one and only one process that encompasses the human being as a whole. Simultaneously with physical development, which encompasses the entire organism, there are two parallel developments that take place in the nervous system:
1. Intellectual maturation takes place through the acquisition of greater knowledge and the increasingly effective coordination, as well as in the development of sound judgment.
2. Effective maturation is characterized by a change in the emotions experienced. This occurs in response to stimuli both internal and external. At the same time, there is a growth in the person’s mastery of these emotional reactions.
The mere observation of the situation should be sufficient to demonstrate the significance of the nervous type to which a person belongs. Where it is possible that examples of pure types exist, only people belonging to the weak or the very unbalanced type are capable of displaying neurotic symptoms. People belonging to the strong type may fall victim to a simple nervous exhaustion. If this happens, their behavior pattern returns to normal after they have rested.
There is no strict correlation between these three aspects of human individual development. A person who is physically and intellectually very well developed may nevertheless be emotionally retarded. In fact, it is this very discrepancy that characterizes neurosis.
This is one of the aspects of neurosis that it may be possible to supplement and correct in the near future if the results of certain recent studies can be confirmed. These studies seem to demonstrate a connection between morphology (and an underlying neuro-endocrine imbalance) and what we can call the emotional age of the person.
Neurotic behavior can also be viewed as the result of a dynamic stereotype. This view highlights the behavioral aspects that are inappropriate and maladaptive with respect to the actual situation that provoked the stereotyped response.
These two points of view complement each other and therefore create a better understanding of a given psychological process.
The phenomena of neurosis
In the following discussion we will mainly deal with this second aspect of neurosis, maintaining that neurosis involves a massive emotional retardation which prevents normal adult patterns from replacing the old childhood patterns which are more or less ineffective in dealing with daily life.
If it is possible to retrain a neurotic, i.e. change his emotional reactions, it is because – as C. Bykov wrote – “an emotion is a complex response of the organism, which depends on complex unconditional and conditional relations, arising from relations influenced by stimuli both from outside and from within”, and because the conditioning of some of these reactions can be abolished.
The first condition for reshaping emotional reactions is to awaken all the patient’s habitual reactions and thereby define his possibilities in the emotional field. Conversation in the normal waking state is not a beneficial state for expressing feelings and emotions in the freest possible way. In contrast, hypnotic states, especially visualization, are particularly well suited for this purpose. Although both hypnosis and psychoanalysis, as advanced by Freud, Adler and Jung, recognize this peculiarity on a purely empirical basis, it was Pavlov who explained why this is so: “The lowering of cortical tone frees the activities of the sub-cortical areas which we call feelings and emotions, which in the normal waking state are more or less controlled by the cortex.”
That is, whatever technique we choose, we should isolate the person from external stimuli as completely as possible. Once the person has been brought into a state that is between waking and sleep (closer to sleep than waking), what level of consciousness should we keep him at? In other words, how far should we go in trying to achieve partial suppression of the cortex?
Physiologists claim that in the waking state the cortex constantly exerts a more or less effective suppression of the sub-cortical activities. This is what makes it possible to suppress feelings and emotions that we consider dangerous or socially maladaptive. In order to study these feelings, the suppressive effect of the cortex must be reduced to a minimum. At this point, however, we must take into account a very important fact, namely, how the neural processes are coordinated. This depends on how the coordinating center known to physiologists functions. In any case, it should be noted that the visual images of a person, both in nocturnal dreams and in guided visualizations, are associated with the person in a more or less coherent way. In some nocturnal dreams the sequence of images is remarkably ordered, while of others it can be said, with a popular expression, that “they have neither head nor tail”.
If we dwell for a moment on André Lamouche’s notion of “levels of consciousness,” where the zero point corresponds to the so-called unconscious processes, we will be able to accept the idea of corresponding degrees of incoherence. If the maximum incoherence corresponds to the most efficient way of functioning in the waking state, the maximum incoherence would be represented by the anarchic sequence of visual images that can be experienced in dreams, which immediately follow deep and dreamless sleep.
At our present level of knowledge it is not possible to determine which point between these two extremes represents the optimum level at which the patient should be placed in order to allow him to express himself with both maximum freedom and sufficient coherence. Some patients will tend to fall asleep very easily and give incoherent answers to all questions. Others, on the other hand, will give the impression of never losing touch with their current situation for a single moment. Even patients who believe that they are consciously creating the scenario expected of them will later be astonished to discover that the construction of the scenario was the result of deep tendencies and psychological factors of which they were not at all conscious during the guided visualization. So, in the present relatively primitive state of things, we must arrive at the desired level purely empirically. If the patient tends to fall asleep during the process (which rarely happens), the only thing necessary is to place him in a sitting rather than a lying position. If absolutely necessary, we could even ask him to work with his eyes open; a procedure we recommend when it comes to guided visualizations in children. In any case, after a few times the patient will have found the level of consciousness that is most conducive to guided visualizations for him. It is worth repeating that this state is much closer to waking consciousness than sleep. There are two conditions that the patient must comply with:
1. During the guided visualization process, he must refrain from a critical attitude towards his contributions.
2. He should remember in detail everything that happens during the session.
Visualization of ascent and descent
Let us now move on to another theoretical aspect of guided visualization. First, I will tell you in general terms about the effect of suggestions of ascent or descent. The exceptions to these observations are less than 2% and can be easily explained. If we consider this type of reaction to be a conditioned reflex, we must ask ourselves what is the unconditioned, inherent reflex to which it is linked, and without which it could not be established? To take the most obvious case, we could not make a dog’s mouth water simply by the sound of a bell, unless the mouth had previously been stimulated by the sight of meat and immediately followed by the sound of the bell (i.e., the conditioned stimulus). In our patient the conditioned stimulus is the word “ascent,” but what inherent and unconditioned reactions are associated with this word? I think I can answer this question by the following considerations:
Among the natural phenomena that affect life, the daily movements of the sun are the most important of all. Sunrise is accompanied by the warmth that ensures the well-being and activities of all living beings, and by the light that animates the appearance of all things, and which dispels the pitfalls of shadow and disturbing mysteries so greatly feared by anxious creatures. On the other hand, the setting of the sun behind the horizon corresponds to the end of the day and the depression that accompanies this weariness – and to the fear of the dangers of the night, whether real or imagined. These impressions, which are renewed every day for all of us with greater or less intensity, have left their mark on everyday language, as I said last.
It can also be demonstrated that the idea of movement from left to right or vice versa from right to left induces a change in the development of a guided visualization that is analogous to what occurs in response to the idea of vertical movement, albeit to a much lesser extent.
In general, for right-handed people, the idea of moving to the left evokes a return to the person’s thoughts about the past, while the idea of moving to the right brings ideas about the future. The fact that these findings are reversed for left-handed people helps us to understand the relationship that we can observe between the dimensions of time and space. Since a person’s behavior is an expression of his total being, experienced emotions, when expressed through movement, will be shaped by his muscular habits. It follows that for a right-handed person, moving the right arm away from the body and extending it to the right will generally express a tendency to action or to give a gift, and should therefore be associated with an optimistic feeling of conquest, struggle, and generosity. On the other hand, bringing the right back to the body will have to do with withdrawing into oneself, with fear, and with avoidance.
It should be understood, however, that training the patient in guided visualization over a period of time is necessary. The duration of this training period will vary considerably from one person to another. Here the establishment of a classical conditioned reflex, isolation and repetition play a role. Furthermore, this training period in itself has a healing effect because it forces the person to make a concerted effort to relate to his mental images. For this reason, guided visualization has nothing in common with the anarchic fluctuations of spontaneous daydreaming. Even the early sessions, however banal their content may seem, constitute the initial retraining of the will and attention, both of which are so often underdeveloped in the neurotic.
I would like to draw attention again to the necessity of keeping certain facts in mind, to which we constantly refer. We often make use of certain formulas, the meaning of which we no longer question. Our fathers used to speak of the “functions of the soul,” but nowadays this very expression makes us smile indulgently.
Isn’t the same thing true of certain ideas such as censorship, forgetting dreams, and resistance, to take some contemporary examples?
Freud linked dream symbolism to the intervention of a moral censorship that remained unconscious. This conclusion is constantly contradicted by facts, by the detailed, critical examination of visual impressions in nocturnal dream images as well as in guided visualizations, and by the imagery of slang. The images of dreams speak a universal language: “the forgotten language,” as Erich Fromm called it, the “intimate language,” as Politzer called it, or the “archaic language,” as Freud put it. Dreams constitute the language of least resistance. It is hardly necessary to give any examples to explain dream symbolism.
Regarding the forgetting of dreams, it would be useful to ask ourselves what it is that promotes the recollection of dreams. In any field, one of the central conditions is repetition. In dreams, it is the strong emotional charge of the images that, when we wake up, compels us to remember them and thus repeat them and the dream sequence for ourselves.
From here I will move on to the concept of resistance. Since I have not discussed it in my books, I will deal with it at some length. Freud taught us that the therapist’s job is to overcome these notorious resistances with the patient’s help. Perhaps the patient does not remember – or does not want to remember – the necessary connection between aspects of his present behavior and certain conditions in his past. According to this theory, resistance is kept down by the analytic process, and – again in theory – healing is achieved when the patient recognizes and acknowledges the cause of the symptoms and their meaning. Resistance is expressed either in the patient’s silence or in his refusal to accept the explanation that the psychoanalyst will eventually offer him.
This resistant attitude is occasionally experienced by the patient during a guided visualization. It happens much less frequently than in psychoanalysis, since the patient, expressing himself in figurative language, exercises far less censorship over his self-exposure, which is thus in a sense involuntary. One way or another, the facts come out. Do we have to wait, as psychoanalysts do, for other self-disclosures to provide us with the possibilities of proceeding towards the consummation of the analysis when this aspect of the patient’s resistance has been exhausted? I rather think that it is possible for us to save time by changing our views a little. If instead of speaking of resistance we speak of inhibition, it seems that all we have done is to replace one word with another, each corresponding to the other. However, the ideological basis is completely different. Psychoanalysis tells us that resistance is a form of censorship arising from a conflict between the ego and the id. Pavlov tells us that inhibition is a dynamic process that takes place at the cortical level and that is generally centered around a strong tension in the neural locus. He also shows us how the stimulation of another area can relieve this state of tension (i.e., how inhibition can be counteracted). It follows that if we have a verbal tool at our disposal to create this second tension pattern, we can hopefully overcome the strong inhibition that resulted from the first neural tension pattern, especially if consciousness can be more or less diverted from it for a while.
The following is an example of what I am talking about: Jeanne is a woman separated from her husband, with whom she has two daughters. The eldest of the girls lives with her father, whose side she took in the parents’ dispute. The other of the girls, who lives with her mother, is the joy of her life, says Jeanne. In addition to the current situation, Jeanne’s past history reveals that she was caught in an animal trap when she was seven years old. As an unfortunate consequence of this painful experience, Jeanne was separated from her mother for a period. Jeanne is currently in perfect health, and despite several emotionally disturbing disappointments, she has made a good career in her profession. Yet she is still quite nervous. She says that she would like to live a simple, uncomplicated life like others. This did not prevent her from seeking a solution to her problems in a form of asceticism. She has also engaged in spiritual practices within several different schools such as Zen and Freudian psychoanalysis, not to mention other lesser-known sects. After “shopping around” she has now decided that she would also like to try guided visualization.
Jeanne is not only very intelligent, but also very talented. I agreed to let her try an initial guided visualization. At first, everything goes well, and I guide her to begin the ascent of a high mountain. She then arrives at a pass near a snowy area and expresses that she feels good. I suggest she rest for a while and suggest that she go to the top of the area. At this point, Jeanne blocks and says, “I like this and I don’t want to go any further.” I encourage her to try again. Jeanne refuses. She opens her eyes and says, “No, I’m not interested in that.”
Here is an example of a very clear resistance. What brought out that resistance? The brief background story that began the guided visualization provided me with enough information to make a guess. When Jeanne tries something new and feels that she might become very involved in it, the latent memory of the trap she was caught in as a child forces her to withdraw to avoid the danger of being caught again.
Did I then switch to a psychoanalytic approach to the problem? Had I done so, it would have been betraying my deepest convictions. The necessary analysis would follow later; at this point it was necessary to overcome the resistance. First I used all my authority in a way that was both kind and firm, insisting that she close her eyes and recreate the pleasant image of the mountain pass. When I was sure that she had regained the peace that this image had created, I asked her to hold on to the image of her daughter. Then I asked her to describe the image of the girl to me. She described the child as smiling and full of energy. I then suggested to the mother that her daughter take her by the hand and pull her up to the peak, which she wanted to explore. This approach was completely successful in overcoming Jeanne’s resistance, and I was now able to bring the session to a normal conclusion.
This example shows us several things. First, it shows us how using a different theoretical explanation can lead us to find new paths and shorten the treatment time. Second, it shows us that knowing the historical background of a habitual inappropriate reaction is not sufficient to eliminate the patient’s troublesome symptom, which in this case was an inability to follow a course of action that could have helped her grow.
I would like to illustrate these theoretical considerations with another typical example.
Recently I was approached by a very intelligent lady of cultured background. She complained of no longer being able to drive on the motorway, although she had no problems driving on the streets of Paris. Nothing in her history seemed to justify these problems. I agreed to treat the woman and guided her through a series of six visualizations which, in theory, should have revealed the cause of the problem. However, everything in these visualizations proceeded quite normally. Here an orthodox Freudian would undoubtedly have said, “You have not carried the analysis to a sufficiently deep level, and the resistance has not been overcome.” According to a Freudian point of view, if the psychotherapist has not reached an understanding of the problem, it can only be because the patient resists and refuses to give up his secret.
What can we do then?
I completely dismissed the hypothesis of a purely psychogenetic problem and asked the woman if she had any physical difficulties. “Yes,” she said, “I have problems with my aorta*), but in fact I don’t find it to be a problem for me. I suggested the following hypothesis to her: “What if you have experienced a slight spasm in your aorta while driving on the highway, and this has made you nervous? It may have been so mild that you did not notice it, while it was being said that the spasm was the real cause of your nervousness. Instead, you have believed that the experience had to do with the highway and its dangers. In this way you have created a solid, conditioned reflex.”
The patient admitted the probability of this hypothesis. The practical measures we took to solve the problem were as follows: I told the lady that I expected her to drive alone on the highway. The following Sunday she was to visit some people who lived about 40 km from Paris. She agreed to make the trip alone, and I prepared her for it by asking her to enter the following guided visualization:
“I’m coming to your house. You take the car out of the garage and I get in next to you. You take the wheel and drive. As we drive down the highway, we talk in a relaxed and friendly way. I ask you to tell me where we are. You describe the scenery along the highway to me in great detail . From time to time, I cheerfully remind you that we are having fun.”
After the guided visualization was complete, I instructed the lady to act out the contents of this guided visualization while she drove out to visit her friends the following Sunday. She was asked to imagine that I was there in the car with her, and that we were having a pleasant conversation, just as we had in the guided visualization. I asked her to call me on Monday to let me know the outcome of the experiment. On Monday evening I received a call from her telling me that everything had gone well and that she had driven more than 90 km without any anxiety.
What had I done? I had brought the patient back into the anxiety-provoking situation, but without allowing the anxiety to resurface. In other words, I had her experience the situation that had evoked the unpleasant conditioned response (fear), but in a way that blocked the strengthening of this conditioned reflex. In this changed situation, the lack of strengthening of the reflex meant that it could be removed, and that the conditioned stimulus – the fear of the highway – lost its power to make the lady anxious.
What would we have achieved by a so-called “in-depth analysis”? You know the answer as well as I do! And yet the woman’s behavior was clearly neurotic!
We have now arrived at the crucial problem of all psychotherapy, regardless of the technique used: the reconstruction of the personality. We will take up that question next time.
Before we conclude this lecture, I would like to offer a little advice and guidance. While it is absolutely necessary for you as young psychologists to become acquainted with the work and theoretical outlook of your predecessors, it is at least as important for you to prepare yourself to take over the struggle for knowledge. While it is essential to know the works of great masters such as Pierre Janet, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Henri Bernheim of the Nancy School, it is equally incumbent on you to study in depth the works of masters in disciplines other than psychology.
Psychology is still far too literary to claim to be a science. It is your future job to make it a truly scientific discipline. It is therefore essential that you read all the works of the Pavlovian school. The following works will be a good introduction to this field:
1. Chauchard, Paul: “Les mécanismes cérébraux de la prise de conscience”, Mason, 1956.
2. Muchielli, R.: “Philosophie de la médecine psychosomatique”, Aubier, 1961.
3. Bykov, C.: “L’écorce cérébrale et les organes internes”, Editions de Moscou, Librairie du Globe.
Third Lesson – January 28, 1965
Visualization in relation to psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud, besides being a genius, was a man of total intellectual honesty. He was fully aware of the shortcomings of his work. That is why he wrote: “The ‘edifice’ we have erected through psychoanalytic doctrine is in reality a superstructure which must at some point be put in place on its organic foundation, but we do not yet know its foundation.” (S. Freud, “A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis,” Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Company, 1943, 338).
Is the situation different today? I think so, and I share this opinion with such a prominent psychiatrist as Professor Sivadon and with the equally respectable physiologist Paul Chauchard, to name just two.
While I was working on optimizing the guided visualization technique, I kept coming across the facts that Freud had demonstrated. Yet psychoanalytic theory, in the form in which it is still passed on, is not sufficient to account for what is experienced in connection with guided visualization. Furthermore, some of the phenomena even contradict classical Freudian doctrine.
The greater the number of facts that can be explained by a scientific theory, the more fruitful and valid the theory is likely to be. Although I recognized the invaluable contributions that psychoanalysis has made, I could not reconcile myself to its theories. My training as an engineer made me quite demanding; I looked for both more rigorous proofs and a less bookish presentation of the facts. I beg your pardon if I appear too severe in my judgment, but allow me to present a restrained criticism of psychoanalysis as given by Dr. E. Monnerot of Marseilles. It deserves your careful consideration. You will find it in Examples 9 and 10 of “La Raison.”
I have made great efforts to relate the phenomenon I was investigating to modern theories (first those of Janet and Freud, then those of Jung and Adler, to name but the most important), but none of them satisfied me. This was not surprising in the light of our present knowledge. Finally, I found a description of the laws of higher nervous activity in man, presented by Pavlov and his followers. It was in this way that I was led to reject certain ideas which others still consider fundamental, and to avoid as far as possible the use of certain words which only lead to confusion.
In short, I decided to abandon ideas such as an “unconscious” that is part of us and where something occurs without conscious attention. Freud used the term “unbewusst”, which means “that which we do not know”. I prefer either to use the term “irréfléchi” (unthoughtlessly, thoughtlessly and headlong), or to use more physiological terms by referring to the failed attempt to establish a “temporary connection”. No experience is ever completely forgotten, but the reason it is not remembered at the moment when it would be most useful is that no prior thought, no prior consideration, has prepared us to see the connection, to create the temporary connection between the previous experience and the present situation. On the other hand, there are many unconscious processes (which are called automatic by the way), and it is logical to speak of levels of consciousness, the zero point being the level at which an unconscious process takes place.
Similarly, the role attributed to dream symbolism is very questionable when we study slang language, with which one can express the most diverse ideas without the slightest form of moral censorship. Politzer has suggested that we should speak of “the intimate language” when we refer to the visual and other expressions of dream language. As Freud expressed it, it is an archaic language without grammar. It allows us to contemplate the feelings experienced when we are alone with ourselves. You will also recall that Erich Fromm called it “the forgotten language.”
The concept of “libido” is not much more worth preserving than the concept of “psychological tension”. It is simply an analogy and serves only for illustration. The current language is sufficiently rich to describe the conditions that some believe are best explained by the concept of libido. On the other hand, the concept of strength of the neural process, the intensity of which varies in relation to physio-chemical factors in the nerve cell, seems to us to be closer to reality. Although at present we are only able to measure this force globally, i.e. for the organism as a whole, and although we cannot yet determine its values in different organs such as the brain (and even less at the cellular level), for lack of a better one, it is still worth preserving.
The concept of transference, so important in psychoanalysis, is also worth retaining. Its role in guided visualizations is far less important than it is in psychoanalytic therapy. It is only rarely necessary to analyze transference on the part of the psychotherapist. In guided visualization, transference generally occurs in relation to a symbolic character in the story.
There are, however, other matters which are far more important than terminology. This applies, for example, to the question of what we understand by neurosis and how we conceptualize the course of treatment. Through a theory we should be able to understand the facts better and to act more effectively on them. For these reasons I find it advisable to abandon Freud’s theory altogether and to subscribe to Pavlov’s concept, which Paul Chauchard has admirably summarized in his remarkable work, “Les mécanismes cérébraux de la prise de conscience” (“Cerebral mechanisms and the state of consciousness”).
Within the inherently limited scope of this presentation, I can give you a summary account of my present considerations on this matter. So bear with me. To put it roughly, I believe that it is incumbent upon us to apply Pavlov’s concepts of the conditioned reflex and the dynamic pattern to our entire emotional life. From this point of view, neurosis is an inhomogeneous group of dynamic patterns, inadequately adapted to social life, and which succeed in fragmenting both the patient’s internal and external relations. The methods we employ to correct these irregularities are as follows:
1. We seek the original morbid condition. Here we are on the same wavelength as psychoanalysis, but without considering it essential to uncover this information. We find it useful, but not always necessary, and never sufficient in itself.
2. We must deprogram certain reflexes or dynamic patterns.
3. The patient must be provided with tools through which he can reorganize his personality, i.e. the means to establish new dynamic patterns that are suitable for meeting the conditions that exist in his life.
What tools does guided visualization give us in this work?
Guided visualization should not be confused with ordinary daydreaming, although the latter offers us a wealth of material for analysis. However, it is far less extensive than the fantasy world that opens up to us through the use of guided visualization, first to the patient and then to his therapist.
Here I would like to raise a subject which has to do with the hypocrisy which certain psychoanalysts are apt to fall for when they claim that the “depth” of a problem can only be reached through psychoanalysis. First of all, we must understand what is meant by “depth”? It is nothing more than a symbol. And why is it that psychoanalysis, apart from the Jungian school, does not devote attention to either the fable images or the images which I have called “mystical”? We encounter these images – with variations in both aesthetic quality and emotional power – in almost everyone. Sometimes the content of these images directly reveals to the patient a possible emotional reaction which is entirely new to him. This is why training in constructive auto-suggestion can prove so beneficial in terms of a far-reaching reconstruction of the personality.
Jungian analysts are familiar with these images, but only insofar as they have arisen spontaneously from folk traditions. They have no methods for consciously awakening them so that they can be studied in vivo Ÿ and used therapeutically.
Freud mentions re-education through the psychotherapist’s controlled suggestion to promote this reconstruction of the patient’s personality, but if he developed a technique from his experience, he did not describe it. (See Freud’s Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, Chapter 28, “Analytical Therapy,” Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing Company, 1943).
These two deficiencies can be compensated for. But to understand how we do this, it is necessary to consider the implications of certain conditions that were made visible by experiments that took place at the beginning of this century (the 20th century, translator’s note) . Pavlov is hardly known to French psychologists; very little of his work was translated into French until the last world war. We only knew of his experiments with dogs. Yet Pavlov had shown that the laws governing the higher nervous activity of dogs apply equally to humans, remembering that the latter have a language that the former lack. Pavlov calls the sensory system that humans and dogs have in common the first signaling system. Alongside this first system, humans have a second signaling system, which consists of the totality of words that represent concepts, feelings, and objects. This second signaling system is what enables humans to express a wealth of behavior and a variety of expressions that go beyond that of animals.
I would like to remind you here of the following crucial experiment: A conditioned motor reflex is established in man with the sound of a bell as the conditioning stimulus. When the reflex is well established, all we need to do to arouse this motor response is to say the word “bell.” The conditioned response will take place without any other form of prior preparation. Here we find the key to a large part of human behavior and at the same time the explanation of the power of both suggestion and auto-suggestion. Let us take an example of neurotic behavior: You are having a quiet conversation with another person. This person seems to you to be relaxed and at ease. His attitude seems to you to be quite normal. Let us now suppose that one of his family members enters the room. Immediately, without so much as a single unkind word being said, and without any movement whatsoever, you notice that your interlocutor is acting nervous, unpleasant, and aggressive.
Psychoanalysts explain this type of reaction with complexes and transference, where Pavlov would say that the sight of the family member serves as a conditioning influence that provokes aggressive feelings. They both experience the same thing, and if we ask them how this came about, the psychoanalyst and Pavlov will give much the same description of the probable circumstances that gave rise to this reaction. Whereas Freud believed that simply informing the patient about the background of this conflict that created his symptoms would be sufficient to eliminate them, it seemed as if he contradicted himself, because in practice he found it necessary to supplement the patient’s insight with a process of re-education. Pavlov, on the other hand, also speaks of conflict, not between the id, the ego and the superego, but between two neural processes (tension and inhibition), the laws of which are known. This brings us closer to an understanding of the physical basis that Freud anticipated. Our next task is therefore to develop methods to turn the patient’s negative and aggressive reaction to a conditioned influence into a positive and beneficial attitude.
How do we apply these concepts in guided visualization? Let me first remind you that the basic principle of the technique is suggestion. The most important form of simple suggestion is to invite the subject to make a visualized ascent and descent in space. The results of these suggestions are so striking that we can propose a general law of the mind. We find that the subject spontaneously reconstructs a whole world of images which symbolically expresses not only his habitual and typical emotional reactions, but also others which he is capable of learning to express.
When the subject follows these suggestions to visualize ascents and descents, he provides us with useful symbolic material for the exploration of the whole range of his habitual emotions as well as the emotions that he should be able to experience. We thus have a very rapid and practical tool for defining a person’s emotional reaction pattern, both in terms of his past experiences and his developmental potential. In this way we can quickly evoke scenes expressing the patient’s conflicts, which enable us to reconstruct their origin. When we use this mode of self-expression, the patient spontaneously slips into the use of dream symbolism. As a rule, he will not be aware that he is talking about himself. Our work is thus not hampered by censorship or resistance on the part of the patient (the situation is quite different when we use the so-called free association technique). This results in a considerable saving of time. At the same time, we help the patient to solve the problem that the visualized situation presents to us and to overcome the anxiety that it creates. This is done by offering him suggestions that are tailored to meet the need in his experienced visualization. One way to achieve this is to suggest moving the problematic scene from a lower to a higher level. The use of this approach promotes the eradication of these harmful reflex reactions, which – although relevant to the conflict – are active only in the patient’s imagination and are not reinforced by the patient’s current real situation. Through this process, we help the patient to develop new dynamic patterns that he will then transfer from his imaginary world to the real world.
Theoretically, this reconstruction takes place in two steps:
1. The tasks of achieving emotional maturity, socializing the instincts, and psychic growth are solved by further expanding the idea of ascension. Through these exercises, the subject will find it increasingly easier to escape from the constricting bonds of reality, but in doing so, he discovers feelings within himself that he has only rarely experienced – and sometimes feelings that are completely new to him. Most of all, he experiences a new sense of generosity and begins to experience that a new satisfaction is possible through giving of himself. In a way, he moves from the hedonism of childhood and adolescence to a mature, generous, magnanimous attitude.
2. Once these new traits have been developed, it is possible to instill in the patient a perspective that is adapted to his life situation. This is done by asking him to visualize situations from his current life that still confront him with difficulties, either real or anticipated.
Here I would like to discuss two things: 1) The interpretation of symbols from the previous session’s visualizations, and 2) the methods used to help the patient reshape his personality.
Interpretation : First of all, I would like to ask you to consider the following: The words we use to describe our feelings towards another person remain completely devoid of emotional meaning for him if they are left alone. Let us take the word “joy”. Alone it has no precise meaning. What does joy consist of? Is it the joy of passing a test or meeting someone we care about? The word “joy” has meaning only in relation to a given situation. Both in our nightly dreams and in guided visualizations, our feelings are expressed through a series of images that make up the story. It is the story that creates the context through which the feeling associated with the dream can be expressed. Although the method of so-called free association of ideas is undoubtedly of scientific value, it is tediously long and involves an enormous waste of effort. Freud himself admitted this. Jung abandoned it for the same reason. An equally reliable and much faster result can be obtained in the following way: Let us take the example of the octopus. The patient encountered it spontaneously in the depths of the sea; he tamed it and brought it up to the beach. I suggest to the patient that the touch of a magic wand will cause a transformation of the octopus, which will reveal its true identity. The change occurs, and the patient says that he now sees his mother, and thus we achieve the desired result. Otherwise the transformation would have no obvious meaning, and nothing would come of our efforts. In that case, I do not press further. Instead, in the next session I can ask the patient what he felt when he met the octopus. The following dialogue is typical:
P. I was scared.
T. For what?
P. …. to be killed.
T. Yes, but there are many ways to be killed by an animal; how were you afraid of being killed?
P. To be crushed by its tentacles and strangled, and to have the blood sucked out of me.
S. OK. Now I would like to ask you to recall the dramatization method we use to explore dreams. Being aware of the dramatization, you ignore the image of the octopus and concentrate on the feeling of horror that you experienced. Now think back to the real circumstances in your life where you felt paralyzed and experienced a feeling that your personality was being suffocated.
A possible answer would be, “I loved my mother very much, but she suffocated me with her excessive care.” In this way we can save a lot of time. If the patient’s answer is not a simple rationalization, it will create the desired insight, and he will not question the interpretation. The greater the emotional aversion when he meets the octopus, the deeper the patient’s insight will be, and the more certain the therapeutic effect will be.
Reconstruction: This is the crowning glory of psychotherapy and the aspect of the process where future research will most certainly bear fruit. Whether we speak, like Freud, of “sublimation,” or, like Jung, of “individuation processes,” or of “reconstruction,” we are in all cases dealing with the same problem. However, because of the theoretical views underlying these terms, I myself prefer the term reconstruction. Freud formulated sublimation as the investment of libido in a new object, which thus became a kind of substitute for the original sexual object. It seems to me that this interpretation devalues certain activities. It may be correct in certain cases, but generalizing on the basis of such results is questionable. Like Jung’s individuation processes, they presuppose the existence of a “Self,” to which Jung attributes almost superhuman qualities. This transition from psychology to metaphysics is detrimental to scientific research.
On the other hand, we seek to establish our work within the framework of psycho-physiology and to use observable facts and to find demonstrable solutions to the problems we experience. So we start with hypotheses that are quite different. If these hypotheses can subsequently be tested experimentally, we will then be able to use them to perfect our techniques.
To make it easier to talk about the treatment process, we consider it to contain three phases:
1. The discovery and study of the patient’s non-adaptive dynamic patterns,
2. The remediation of these non-adaptive patterns,
3. And finally, the establishment of new, appropriate dynamic patterns.
This step is what is needed in the reconstruction of the patient’s behavior. The patient only wants this improvement to the extent that he wants to perfect his potentials in all areas. The achievement of this goal is made possible by the brain’s powerful capacity to create new “temporary associations.”
How does guided visualization help us achieve this goal? We must not forget that the neurotic is “emotionally retarded”; all schools of thought agree that neurotics are emotionally immature. A fundamental feature of the mature, adult human being is the emergence and development of generous tendencies. This nobility develops when we master our instinctive reactions: the ability to keep a cool head when we encounter a delicate and potentially dangerous situation; the ability to examine the situation realistically and respond in a way that takes into account the rights of others as well as our own. These are the behavioral goals we seek. First of all, they involve learning to awaken a sense of calm and clarity. We show the patient how, through his guided visualizations, he achieves this when he experiences images of light. These images are concrete accompanying phenomena to such feelings. At this point, a feeling of warmth for other people and a desire to help them arises. These attitudes are normal for an adult who has developed the ability to give of himself to others; it is important if he wants to live in harmony with his fellow humans.
When the patient has found these images and experienced these adult feelings, he has undergone a profound emotional maturation. We then lead the patient from the world of imagination to the world of reality. We do this by means of auto-suggestion, the purpose of which the patient understands and which he willingly accepts. It is then up to him to practice this in his imagination on his own. Remember that the patient heals himself; all the psychotherapist can do is teach him how to do it.
As I reminded you recently, Freud was fully aware of the usefulness of suggestion in human development. He knew both how to instill it and how to control it. May I remind you at the same time with a few examples of the power of suggestion, whether we are talking about auto- or hetero-suggestion. Foreign languages can be learned very quickly and with minimal effort by a person who is sleeping. This is done by letting him listen to appropriate recordings. Or, to take an example of unconscious suggestion in the waking state, let us say that we want to increase the sales of a certain brand of candy in the lobby of a cinema. This can be done very quickly without informing the audience of our intention by inserting a short film clip with our candy advertisement, so that it lasts a fraction of a second in the film itself.
Now, to return to our own particular concerns, here is an example of how we use suggestion: A person who needs to pass an important exam knows that he has prepared thoroughly, but is full of fear of failing. He is almost certain that his mind will block on the day of the exam and that he will do poorly on the test. If he can be quickly brought into a sufficiently relaxed state, and if he can create a mental picture of this relaxed state, it is not necessary to go through a whole course of treatment. By consciously evoking this mental picture he will be able to return at any time to the same state of pleasant relaxation that he achieved in his guided visualization. He will keep a cool head and think clearly.
In practice, I suggest to the patient, once he has found the luminous images I mentioned earlier, and while he is experiencing the desired feeling of calm and energy, that he imagines himself wrapping himself in a cloak of light and, as he does so, surrounding himself with a protective shield. I then ask him to see himself returning to earth from his ascension, still surrounded by this protection. I then ask him to imagine that the day of the exam has arrived: he gets up, washes himself, and eats breakfast without haste and in a state of calm, after which he goes to the examination site, takes his seat, and meditates. In doing so, I instruct him to re-awaken the image of the luminous cloak to ensure the desired state of calm, after which he imagines himself reading the exam questions. He calmly makes a plan and gets going. Three or four such sessions have usually been sufficient to ensure success for the people I have worked with. This is how I teach keeping a cool head.
When a problem involves more complex and serious emotional reactions, a full treatment program is needed. Take, for example, the case of a young married woman who becomes confused when her father visits her. Although her reaction is a cross for her, an analytic approach to the problem has proven futile. Moreover, the patient is fully aware of how illogical her feelings are. In a series of guided visualizations, I helped the patient to imagine her father in a luminous atmosphere. This enables her to experience positive feelings towards him. Little by little, I get her to experience a pleasant conversation with him. I then ask her to imagine the following scene: She is at home waiting for her father to come for dinner. Before he arrives, she re-enacts the visualized contacts she has had with him in the luminous atmosphere in her previous guided visualizations. While doing this, she makes an effort to maintain an inner calm and a friendly attitude towards her father. Then I suggest that she see her father arrive and that she imagine the whole evening unfolding in a cordial atmosphere. I ask the patient to relive this guided visualization on her own as often as possible to reinforce the new dynamic pattern that we have created in her imagination. The results are excellent.
Before concluding my remarks, I would like to draw your attention once again to the possibility of applying the guided visualization technique to psychosomatic problems. Here too, psychophysiology offers us both an explanation of the phenomena we can observe and the techniques suitable for curing problems of this kind. Pavlov established that every place in the organism has its own cortical representation site. In fact, we know that pain can be eliminated by blocking an adjacent neural pathway. Conversely, both Pavlov and Bykov have shown that any influence can become a conditioned influence in the production of a reaction that can be observed anywhere in the body, for example the intestines.
If we keep in mind the fact that in man a word can replace a sensory signal without any prior preparation, it will immediately become clear to us that by starting with an appropriate visual image we have the possibility of influencing the function of any organ. This approach is particularly useful in reducing and even completely eliminating pain. However, this can only be done with subjects who have been trained in the guided visualization technique. At the same time, although I have worked in this field for quite some time, I have not yet experienced enough cases to be able to offer you any clear, unambiguous rules. I would like to remind you that verbal stimuli in this field are less effective than visual images. That is the reason why we work with visual representations of the body – regardless of their anatomical precision. At this point, that is all I can tell you.
I will conclude this all too brief presentation of the guided visualization technique by again recommending that you carefully study both Pavlov and Bykov. Their great works have been translated into French by Editions de Moscou and are sold through Librairie du Globe.
*) The large body artery, which leads the blood from the heart out into the body.
Ÿ) i.e. alive
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Also read the article Psychosynthesis an Integral Psychology and the biography of Roberto Assagioli
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