Thoughts on Raja Yoga

Assagioli reflects on psychospiritual development and how we can take inspiration from the Raja Yoga system of India.

By Roberto Assagioli. Original title: Eastern and Western Methods of Psychospiritual Development. Course of Lectures on: The Latent Energies In Us. Lecture X April 15, 1934 (Unrevised notes). Original Italian Title: Metodi Orientali E Occidentali Di Sviluppo Psicospirituale. Translated with Notes by Jan Kuniholm.

(Editors note: this document is two lectures about the Eight Limbs of Raja Yoga combined into one article. Unfortunately I have not been able to identify the last lecture on Dhyana and Samadhi; however, look at the articles Meditation – Contemplation – Enlightenment and Meditation and Contemplation and Contemplation and Illumination. You should also visit A Practical Contribution to Modern Yoga and Assagioli’s introduction to the Yoga Sutras)

A comparative examination of the methods of psychospiritual development taught and used in the East, with those adopted in the West, may prove instructive:

1. For the many identities and similarities that are discovered, and which are valuable in increasing our confidence in those methods.

• For the differences that are detected, and whose reasons and nature it is very interesting to research and examine.

• For the possibility of combining elements of one and the other so as to constitute a more complete and integral method.

The Orientals, and particularly the Indians, have definitely turned their interest, aspiration and efforts toward the conquest of the inner world, toward the discipline of psychological faculties, and toward the awakening and development of spiritual consciousness. It is natural, therefore, that they have become masters in those arts and have much to offer and teach. If we refused to examine the fruits of their efforts and victories without preconceived notions, we would display unwarranted pride and deplorable narrow-mindedness.

On the other hand, as much as Western civilization has been increasingly oriented toward the conquest of the external world, there has certainly been no lack of individuals or groups in it who have striven with all their might toward the attainment of the mastery of their own inner forces, toward spiritual perfection, toward union with the Supreme. In antiquity there were the initiations into the mysteries, the Pythagorean and Stoic disciplines; and then Christianity gave rise to a rich harvest of ascetic and mystical endeavors that have taken the most diverse forms over the centuries. Recently, numerous movements have arisen and have developed widely — especially in England and America, — some of them with spiritual tendencies, others of a purely practical nature aimed at using psychological faculties and energies for purely utilitarian purposes.

Of course, we will not be able to examine all these movements, but will have to limit ourselves to some of the most typical ones.

Thus for the East — where we have the many methods of the various schools — Brahmanic, southern and northern Buddhist, ancient and modern, Taoist, etc., — we shall only speak of Yoga, as expounded to us by Patanjali in his terse aphorisms (Yoga Sutras).

Let us first realize well the meaning of the word yoga. It is derived from the root yug, which means “to unite, to join.” It therefore means primarily “conjunction, union with Spirit,” but it also has the meaning of subjection or mastery of psychic forces. Our word “yoke” comes from the same root, yug.

Patanjali distinguishes eight pathways of Yoga. The two first preparatory ones are:

YAMA – NIYAMA

YAMA are the commandments or precepts, namely:

1. Harmlessness
2. Truthfulness
3. Abstention from theft
4. Self-restraint
5. Abstention from greed

NIYAMA

1. Purification
2. Contentment
3. Fervent aspiration
4. Study
5. Devotion to Ishvara (God)[1]

In demanding this rigorous moral preparation Yoga is in full accord with the best Western methods, and particularly with Christian asceticism and mysticism, which have been so insistent on the need for moral purification. This agreement [between eastern and western methods] is a salutary warning to those who are driven by enthusiasm, fanaticism, or eagerness to acquire supernormal powers, and strive to awaken latent psychophysical forces with violent and excessive practices.

Apart from the serious ethical and spiritual objections that can and should be made to these premature and unconscious attempts, there is one psychological consideration that should suffice to refrain from them. And that is that it is not enough to gain powers and unleash forces: one must then also know how to handle them, and know how to use them well. Now, the ordinary man — and by this I also mean an intelligent and cultured person, but one who does not follow a spiritual discipline — often does not know how to properly master the normal instinctive, emotional and mental energies stirring within him. He gets carried away by impulses of anger; he may fall prey to passion; he does not know how to free himself from worries and fears; he does not know how to restrain the continuous workings of his imagination and mind, etc. So how can he claim to master far more subtle and powerful energies?

In fact, experience shows that those who have been rash and presumptuous enough to do this [without proper preparation] have often suffered severely from nervous and mental disorders, and from humiliating defeats and setbacks.

This should not frighten us or make us give up the noble attempt to develop inwardly and awaken the higher faculties that are latent in us; but it should induce us to earnestly carry out the preliminary work of discipline and inner purification prescribed unanimously by the Spiritual Guides of East and West.

It can be said succinctly that such work consists:

1. In the examination and purification of our motives, so as to eliminate every impulse that is purely selfish and separative and harmful to others, thus violating the great law of solidarity and love based on the unity of Life.

• In the development of a strong and wise will, capable of adequate — if not perfect — mastering of the various inner forces.

Sound teachings suitable for accomplishing this work can be found:

• For Yoga, in Patanjali’s text[2] (which is not easy); in the good vernacularisations contained in Ramacharaka’s[3] books, especially Lessons in Raja Yoga; and in Swami Vivekananda’s[4] Raja Yoga (in English).

• For the West, and to cite just a few modern books: L’Éducation de la Volonté, by Payot;[5] L’Éducation de soi-même, by Dubois;[6] the already recommended L’Education de la Character by Baciocchi;[7] Le Gouvernement de soi-même by Father Eymieu,[8] and especially the excellent book Self-Knowledge and Self-Discipline by Father Maturin. [9]

The third method of Yoga indicated by Patanjali is ASANA, or attitude of the body.

The Indians indicate various attitudes or postures of the body as most suitable for meditation in relation to the flow of life currents. We cannot follow them in that field in which we have no sure knowledge, and it is foreign to our habits. (At most, we can say that the classical Eastern posture, that is, sitting with crossed legs and erect trunk, seems — for those who have become accustomed to it — conducive to meditation.) But we Westerners, more or less caught up in the maelstrom of feverish activism, tension, exertion and haste that characterizes contemporary civilization, need good muscular, nervous and psychic relaxation more than special postures.

The fourth means of yoga is PRANAYAMA.

This way is more difficult to understand than the others, because in the West we do not have anything that corresponds to it precisely.

PRANAYAMA has been translated as “breath regulation,” but it actually means more than that. Prana, according to the Indians, is first and foremost the vital energy that animates our bodies; but this in turn is but a particle and a differentiation of universal energy. Now, according to them, the regulation of the breath by a voluntary rhythm imposed on the breathing muscles provides the way to regulate and direct the vital and nervous energy, or prana. This mastery first of all provides a mastery over the body, so that normally autonomous muscles, such as the heart, the smooth muscles of the intestines, etc., can be moved at will. But according to the Indians, one can also release latent energies in certain centers of forces that exist, according to them, in the human organism. Moreover, given the continuous action and reaction that the body and psyche exert on each other, through Pranayama one can also master emotional and mental energies, and create conditions for the manifestation of spiritual faculties.

However, the practice of Pranayama is dangerous — especially for Westerners who are unfamiliar with the techniques and conditions. Therefore, it is advisable to abstain from it. The only harmless and beneficial exercise that can be recommended is that of rhythmic, slow, deep and regular breaths (10 to 12 at a time). This promotes relaxation, rest and spiritual calm.

In the next meetings we will discuss the highest and most arduous methods of spiritual development:

Concentration – Meditation – Contemplation.

In the meantime, let us think about laying a good foundation, for the higher the tower we want to raise to Heaven, the more solid and secure must be the foundations that must support it.

EASTERN AND WESTERN METHODS OF INNER DEVELOPMENT

II. DETACHMENT – INTROVERSION

(Assagioli Archives – Florence – April 1934)[10]

We have discussed the first Four Ways of Yoga, which can be regarded as preparatory.

We will now consider the following two:

PRATYHARA and DHARANA

Pratyhara can be translated as recollection or introversion.[11] It is the inner act by which we “take in hand,” so to speak, the scattered and extroverted psychic energies, turn them inward and hold them firmly under our control. [12]

This is arduous work. Habitually our mind is undisciplined; it is in incessant motion. The Orientals have very effectively compared it to an unruly monkey. Here is how Swami Vivekananda[13] makes the ingenious comparison:

“There was once a monkey — restless, as all monkeys are. As if that were not enough, someone let her drink as much wine as it wanted, and so she became even more restless. Then a scorpion stung her . . . Finally, to finish the work, a demon entered her. There are no words to describe the irrepressible agitation of that monkey. Well, the human mind is similar to that. For it is by its nature continually active; then, it becomes intoxicated with the wine of desire . . . after that it is stung by jealousy of the success of others, and finally the demon of pride takes possession of it . . . How difficult it is to master such a mind!” — (Raja Yoga, ch. VI, Works, I. 194)

To facilitate pratyahara, recollection, it is useful to eliminate or diminish external stimuli; i.e., to seek a quiet place and close one’s eyes (this is necessary, or nearly so, at first; then, as one practices, it becomes less and less so). Then, instead of immediately attempting to suppress mental activity by forceful effort — which is arduous and not without drawbacks — it is advisable to exercise inner control. This exercise, recommended by Vivekananda, consists of letting the mind indulge itself while we observe it, calmly waiting. Let the monkey run, jump from tree to tree, do somersaults and make grimaces as and how it likes. If we repeat this exercise every day, we shall find that little by little the leaps will become less violent, the movements less rapid, until after months and months the mind will remain relatively quiet, and perhaps even turn to us, tame, as if waiting for instructions.

We must take care, however, to keep ourselves alert and attentive, not allowing our consciousness to be overwhelmed and submerged in the whirlwind of the mind, yet not surrendering to a state of passivity and drowsiness. Likewise, we must refrain from any emotional involvement. It is the calm but “positive” attitude of a “detached” but attentive and aware spectator. Such an exercise is useful in several respects. First of all, it helps to develop self-awareness; that is, awareness of our “I” — of what we essentially are, distinguishing us from the emotions and thoughts with which we usually mistakenly identify ourselves. This is of great value and forms the basis for further and higher spiritual realizations.

Other good exercises for achieving such disidentification are indicated by Ramacharaka[14] in his Raja Yoga (ed. Carabba, I, 38-39 and 40-41). In addition, letting the flow of psychic activity have free rein brings to the surface many elements that usually remain hidden in the unconscious, and thus offers useful data for knowledge of our personality, so much so that it can be regarded as a form of self-psychoanalysis.

The Sixth Means of Yoga is Dharana, or Concentration. It consists of keeping the mind fixed on a given object. It can be said that in practice concentration is synonymous with voluntary attention. A clear distinction must be made between spontaneous attention and voluntary attention. The former is produced by the interest aroused in us by the external or internal object occupying the field of our consciousness. In contrast, voluntary attention is a true concentration of the mind on a chosen object, even if it has no direct interest for us. It is an act of our will. It is the will that directs attention, focuses the mind and keeps it fixed on the object. As it is said in the Dhammapada,

“The mind is excitable and unsteady; it is difficult to control and restrain. The wise one trains his mind to be as straight as a fletcher makes an arrow . . . The mind is difficult to control; it moves swiftly and lightly and lands wherever it pleases. It is good to tame the mind, for a well-tamed mind brings happiness.” (Adv. 33 and 35). [15]

It is an effort, a struggle; but after a time it happens that the mind yields, submits, and then remains concentrated for some time without needing to be compelled any longer. It has become “ordered” — a coordination, an inner synthesis has taken place (this is an analogy to what happens with children using Montessori materials).

This can be explained, in part, by the fact that while interest produces attention, it also happens that attention tends to arouse interest. As Ramacharaka aptly puts it,

“If one will take the trouble to give a little Voluntary Attention to an object, he will soon find that a little perseverance will bring to light points of Interest in the object. Things before unseen and unsuspected, are quickly brought to light. And many new phases, and aspects of the subject or object are seen, each one of which, in turn, becomes an object of Interest . . . Look for the interesting features of an uninteresting thing, and they will appear to your view, and before long the uninteresting object will have changed into a thing having many-sided interests.” [16]

The power of concentration can be trained in various ways through suitable exercises. One of the simplest, and relatively easiest, is prolonged observation of an external object. Ramacharaka gives a persuasive and amusing example of this by relating the method the great naturalist Agassiz used with his pupils. (See op. cit. p. 147-149)[17] One may say that other concentration exercises that develop its intensity are based on the speed and exactness of sensory observation. (see Ramacharaka, op. cit. p. 121) Then there is an exercise that could be called “negative concentration;” that is, alternately turning attention to, and then diverting attention from, a sensory stimulus, at will ; e.g., a noise, a sound. (see Wood, Concentration, Rome, Signorelli, p. 43) [18] In all these concentration exercises one must be careful to eliminate all physical, nervous and muscular tension.

The value of concentration will become even more evident when we consider how the power of concentration is one of the essential characteristics of genius. Helvetius[19] said that genius is prolonged attention, and Buffon[20] said that it is extended patience. Chesterfield said that the power of giving strict and continuous attention to a single object is the most certain mark of genius. (James, Principles of Psychology, p. 155)[21]

We believe that genius is a complex phenomenon[22] and that it also consists of other essential elements, but we agree well with Prof. Butler’s words, “All men of genius have possessed in a high degree the power of concentrating their mental powers, and it is undoubtedly true that this power is susceptible of indefinite increase by careful and resolute exercise.” [23]

But here it is necessary to consider certain facts which seem to contradict what has been said, but which actually are its full confirmation and proof. These are the so-called “distractions of men of genius.”[24] It does not require a very deep psychological analysis to understand that these apparent distractions are instead the result of an extraordinary concentration, an absolute absorption of all psychic faculties in the object of their studies. It is easy to smile at these incidents and to see the drawbacks that this excessive concentration can produce in practical life, but we should not feel so superior. No valuable thing can be acquired without a corresponding sacrifice. If one is serious about achieving a difficult goal, one must be willing to give up many things; to renounce things, to limit oneself, and even when necessary to face ridicule or criticism from “right-thinking people” — from those who consider everything that transcends their petty and sterile balance as “stable people” to be exaggerated and morbid. Those who are too “stable” stand still: they do not progress! Therefore those passionate seekers of truth deserve not only our respect but our admiration.

On the other hand, it remains true that the highest ideal of inner perfection lies in being master of one’s own power of concentration, and not in being possessed and dominated by it, as in the cases we have cited. The ideal lies in being able to concentrate at will in a perfect way, and then cease when appropriate. And the only way to approach this ideal of full self-mastery is by doing methodical training of one’s power of concentration, promoted, directed and controlled by our watchful will.

Concentration exercises are also exercises of the will, thus their twofold usefulness:

1. Discipline of the mind
2. Gymnastics of the will

Exercises of visualization and evocation of auditory, olfactory, tactile images, and those of developing perception, the power of observation also help concentration. For example:

• Successively evoking (visualizing) the letters of the alphabet.
• Successively evoking (by visualizing them) a series of 50-100 numbers.
• Mentally going back over a walk or path taken, recalling all the routes taken in order.
• Recalling (in reverse order) the activities done on the previous day. This also serves as preparation for the examination of consciousness.

Concentration exercises in daily life:

Continually fighting the tendency to scatter, to dissociate, or to do one thing while thinking about another, and wishful fantasizing is a huge waste of energy; it is inner anarchy. So while doing something, think about that — do it with speed, precision, energy, efficiency. While on the streetcar or while waiting, instead of being tense and restless, concentrate on some lively or important subject.

Concentration of mental application: study of various kinds, reading, writing, etc.

Apply various rhythms: long application and long rest; short repeated applications; long application interspersed with frequent very short rests. The latter is best: no loss of start-up “heat,” yet necessary rest is given. Study one’s personality type, and through careful testing find one’s own most appropriate rhythm, whatever “yields” most with the least expenditure of effort.

But there is an even more important aspect, a general and synthetic aspect of concentration: this refers to the organization, the program of our whole life.

Don’t scatter your efforts, don’t try to do too many things — don’t be a dilettante. Then one should not overdo things or get too intense: relaxation is needed. You can even take a stroll and fantasize: this is rest; it is allowing the unconscious to surface. What comes up is useful to know for self-awareness. Along with discipline and mental activity, cultivate the other vital aspects: feeling, imagination, the aesthetic sense, the religious sense. Don’t live haphazardly. Learn the Art of Life. Make your life a work of harmony and beauty.

The following conversation about yoga is an extract from an interview with Assagioli titled: Roberto Assagioli and Mariella Crocellà in conversation. See sitemap.

R.A.: So psychosynthesis is yoga. You have to make a preliminary distinction: the yogas are various and very different from each other, and here in the West there is a lot of confusion, but in general we refer to the physical yoga, the lower one, is called Hatha Yoga — those strange postures, with exaggerated breathing exercises, etc. Now these postures are not suitable for Westerners or Western life, except for some, and the breathing exercises are dangerous if not done very carefully.

M.C.: Why, doctor?

RA. Because they produce psychophysical reactions — that would be a long discussion.

M.C.: It would interest you that I would like to do a television report on breathing as a substitute for cigarettes.

RA. Who would that?

M.C.: I wanted to do it myself, because they say that breathing, the oxygenation that I was doing just now, produces the same effects as smoking.

RA. That’s why, if you want, you can do it [i.e., the long discussion mentioned earlier] another time, separately.

M.C.: Yes, thank you.

RA. Instead, the higher Yoga is neglected; it is called Raja Yoga, which means Royal Yoga. This shows that the Indians give it a higher position.

M.C.: The one of the spirit, let’s say.

RA. Yes — psychological, I would say; because you have to distinguish between psychological and spiritual, now you will see [this] from the rest. But there is so much that is useful; what needs to be done is an adaptation of yoga to the mentality, to the conditions of life, to the needs of Western man: so this is an aspect of psychosynthesis.

M.C.: Psychosynthesis is definitely derived from yoga.

R.A.: NO, you can’t say that it is derived — psychosynthesis uses a number of techniques from Yoga by framing them in the scientific psychosynthetic conception of the human being. This is what I want to say, that it is not an adaptation of Yoga. It has developed from itself, or rather out of the trunk of psychoanalysis, as you will see from the history of psychosynthesis. I did my [doctoral] dissertation on the history of psychoanalysis when it was completely [new] in Italy,

M.C.: Imagine.

R.A.: I’ll tell you the date —1910.

M.C.: Truly a forerunner.

R.A.: The dissertation on psychoanalysis [was done] in 1910, and then I saw limitations of it as I developed psychosynthesis. Then I got to know Yoga and saw that you can very well do some . . .

M.C.: — Exchanges.

R.A.: Yes. So these are mainly psychological exercises of concentration, visualization, exercises of the will, mind mastery, and meditation. Here, to save time and breath I’ll give you two lessons on psychosynthesis meditation; [hands out material] you can keep them.

M.C.: Thank you.

R.A.: Now this mental Yoga, these trainings and mental exercises do not necessarily have a spiritual character and are “self-centered,” they are for personal purposes. It includes — you have to always distinguish psyche and spirit; there are so many in America who try to successfully establish themselves with [only] psychological methods to . . . but this involves nothing spiritual, they are psychological techniques used for the purposes of the self. Whereas what is spiritual is instead the awakening of the superconscious, of the higher third of the psyche where there is artistic inspiration, insight, genius, even impulses to heroic acts and overcoming the instinct of self-preservation. But this is a characteristic of spirituality that is different from the pure psychological mechanism; if you want I’ll give you this note so you can use it [hands out material]; and now the last one, and then I’m at your command.

…

Now, psychosynthesis — in fact the real name, as I have already said, is bio-psychosynthesis (I don’t use it because it is a bit long) — generally deals not only with the mind as a psycho-biological factor. There is the purely psychological one, and then the spiritual side. You can make the comparison that it is like a building: psychoanalysis in general deals with the basement, the cellars that it is necessary to clean up; then normal, official psychology deals with the second floor; but there is also the upper floor and the terraces, and these are taken care of [by] psychosynthesis.

Ms. C.: Can I call it a spiritual world?

R.A.: Yes — the world of values; very good, Madam. “Values” — that particularly characterizes the individual exactly — and that’s what psychosynthesis deals with. Not exclusively, but it examines all that material that is habitually overlooked.

Ms. C.: Does Yoga and Raja Yoga deal with that as well?

R.A.: Some yogis do, some don’t. Physical yoga, no. It deals with developing certain powers over physiological functions: making the heart beat slower or faster at will, etc. But this has nothing spiritual about it. So, you have to distinguish the various yogas. And the best yoga is Raja Yoga with Patanjali’s Yoga aphorisms. I don’t know whether you have a spiritual conception of life.

Ms. C.: Ah, of life yes, of course. I met a big person in the . . . Kanagiunblaka[i]is the head of the Lebanese Druze.[ii] He practiced yoga and is a very interesting character.

R.A.: But that must have been spiritual Raja Yoga. But the Patanjali Sutras are the essence of true Spiritual Yoga: mental and spiritual.

Ms. C.: To make the readers understand how Yoga works as well as possible . . .

R.A.: So, Yoga are training methods — I’m talking about the best Yoga — physio-psycho-spiritual or, I would say, more psycho-spiritual.

Ms. C.: Where does the benefit come from?

R.A.: Each technique brings its own benefit, in this case: concentration of the mind, meditation, contemplation, visualization. Each one has its own [benefit].

Ms. C.: Is there a specific benefit for each technique?

R.A.: Yes. I will gladly tell you about it. Then I will also give you exercises that we do in psychosynthesis, which are related, but always adapted to the West. Now I will make a parenthesis: I don’t know if you have seen this article on Maharishi [Mahesh Yogi] . . . in the last issue of Epoch, February 28.[iii] He consciously adapted Eastern Yoga for Westerners. In fact, in my opinion, he even did it too much because he made it a little too easy . . . but for the Beatles it was needed. For example, he doesn’t make them do any “postures;” he makes them sit with the crossed legs and that’s it. Here, look at this article . . . then, relaxation is a basic technique, both for . . . relaxation is now also used by quite a few doctors — for example, Shultz’s technique of autogenic training.[iv] Psychosynthesis has this character, that it is synthetic; that is, it uses all the valid techniques of all psychotherapies and yoga: each for its specific purposes.

[i] This is the spelling given in the transcript. However the reference may be to Kamal Jumblatt (1917-1977) who was a Lebanese Druze leader. —Ed.

[ii] The Druze, (who call themselves by an Arabic term that means something like “monotheist” or “unitarian”) are an Arab and Arabic-speaking ethno-religious group whose religion is distinct from Islam and other middle-eastern faiths, found mainly in Lebanon, but also in Syria, Jordan and Israel. —Ed.

[iii] Epoca, or Epoch, was an Italian magazine published between 1950 and 1997. It resembled the American magazine Life, and the French Paris Match. —Ed.

[iv] Autogenic training is a relaxation technique first introduced by German psychiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz in 1932. Since then it has been widely used in clinical practice and research to produce relaxation in the body. —Ed.

[1] Ishvara, (Sanskrit: “Lord”) in Hinduism, is God understood as a person, in contrast to the impersonal transcendent Brahman.

[2] The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga. The Yoga Sutras was compiled in the early centuries CE, by the sage Patanjali in India who synthesized and organized knowledge about yoga from much older traditions. —Tr.

[3] Yogi Ramacharaka was one of the pseudonyms used by William Walker Atkinson (1862-1932), a pioneer of the American “New Thought” movement and author of over 100 books. Atkinson’s publisher claimed there there was a line of transmission between Atkinson and the original Ramacharaka, who was born in India in 1799, through Baba Bharata. who co-authored the Yogi Ramacharaka works published in English. —Tr.

[4] Swami Vivikananda (1863-1902) was an Indian monk, philosopher, teacher, author and disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. —Tr.

[5] English edition:The Education of the Will: The Theory and Practice of Self-Culture, by Jules Payot, Forgotten Books, 2012. —Tr.

[6] English edition: The Education of Self, by Paul Dubois, Palala Press, 2015. —Tr.

[7] [The Education of Character]by Maria Baciocchi de Peon (1867-1935), Florence, 1934. There is currently no English edition of this work. —Tr.

[8] Father Antonin Eymieu (1861-1933) was a French Jesuit priest. He was the author of numerous books and other publications on issues relating to religion and psychology. His Le Gouvernement de soi-même, Essai de psychologie pratique was published in four series from 1905 to 1930 and is currently available only in French editions. —Tr.

[9] Basil William Maturin (1847 – 1915) was an Irish-born Anglican priest, preacher and writer who later became Catholic. New edition of Self-Knowledge and Self-Discipline, by Franklin Classics, 2018. —Tr.

[10] There are several versions of this talk at the Assagioli Archives, several of which indicate that the document contained “unrevised notes.” The present translation is based upon Doc. #23633, a typed manuscript. —Tr.

[11] Assagioli uses the term “introverted” in its strict sense of “oriented toward the internal private world of one’s self,” and “extroverted” as “oriented toward outer phenomena.” —Tr.

[12] According to Yogainternational.com, Pratyahara means literally “gaining [inner] mastery over external influences.” The term is usually translated as “withdrawal from the senses,” but much more is implied.—Tr.

[13] Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) was an Indian monk, philosopher, teacher, author and disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. —Tr.

[14] Yogi Ramacharaka was one of the pseudonyms used by William Walker Atkinson (1862-1932), a pioneer of the American “New Thought” movement and author of over 100 books. Atkinson’s publisher claimed there there was a line of transmission between Atkinson and the original Ramacharaka, who was born in India in 1799, through Baba Bharata. who co-authored the Yogi Ramacharaka works published in English. —Tr.

[15] The Dhammapada is the best known text in the Pali Tipitaka, the sacred scriptures of Theravada Buddhism. Verses 33 and 35 which Assagioli quotes are given here is adapted from a translation by tipitaka.net —Tr.

[16] This quotation is taken from the original English in a modern edition: Ramacharaka, Yogi; Atkinson, William Walker. Raja Yoga (p. 56). Jazzybee Verlag. Kindle Edition. Original citation by Assagioli was: (Raja Yoga, ed. Carabba I, p. 108) —Tr.

[17] Assagioli also told the story of Professor Agassiz and his student in his 1933 lecture titled “The Development of Deficient Faculties” [Sviluppo delle Facoltà Carenti in Italian],a copy of which is found in the Assagioli Archives.The anecdote is related in more detail there.—Tr.

[18] English edition is Concentration by Ernest Wood, Quest Books, 1968.—Tr.

[19] Clause Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771), French philosopher. —Tr.

[20] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788). French naturalist, mathematician, and encyclopedist.—Tr.

[21] Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4^th Earl of Chesterfield (1694-1773), British statesman and man of letters. The reference is from Letters to His Son on the Art of Becoming a Man of the World and a Gentleman (1774) published posthumously by the widow of Chesterfield’s illegitimate son. —Tr.

[22] literally. “faculty” —Tr.

[23] Source of this quotation is unknown. —Tr.

[24] Like what in English is called “the absent-minded professor” phenomenon. —Tr.